Interaction of atrial natriuretic factor and angiotensin II in proximal HCO3- reabsorption

The Effects of Angiotensin II or Angiotensin 1-7 on Rat Pial Microcirculation during Hypoperfusion and Reperfusion Injury: Role of Redox Stress

Renin-angiotensin systems produce angiotensin II (Ang II) and angiotensin 1-7 (Ang 1-7), which are able to induce opposite effects on circulation. This study in vivo assessed the effects induced by Ang II or Ang 1-7 on rat pial microcirculation during hypoperfusion-reperfusion, clarifying the mechanisms causing the imbalance between Ang II and Ang 1-7. The fluorescence microscopy was used to quantify the microvascular parameters. Hypoperfusion and reperfusion caused vasoconstriction, disruption of blood-brain barrier, reduction of capillary perfusion and an increase in reactive oxygen species production. Rats treated with Ang II showed exacerbated microvascular damage with stronger vasoconstriction compared to hypoperfused rats, a further increase in leakage, higher decrease in capillary perfusion and marker oxidative stress. Candesartan cilexetil (specific Ang II type 1 receptor (AT₁R) antagonist) administration prior to Ang II prevented the effects induced by Ang II, blunting the hypoperfusion-reperfusion injury. Ang 1-7 or ACE2 activator administration, preserved the pial microcirculation from hypoperfusion-reperfusion damage. These effects of Ang 1-7 were blunted by a Mas (Mas oncogene-encoded protein) receptor antagonist, while Ang II type 2 receptor antagonists did not affect Ang 1-7-induced changes. In conclusion, Ang II and Ang 1-7 triggered different mechanisms through AT₁R or MAS receptors able to affect cerebral microvascular injury.

Dietary Fructose Increases the Sensitivity of Proximal Tubules to Angiotensin II in Rats Fed High-Salt Diets

Dietary fructose causes salt-sensitive hypertension. Proximal tubules (PTs) reabsorb 70% of the filtered NaCl. Angiotensin II (Ang II), atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP) and norepinephrine (NE) regulate this process. Although Ang II signaling blockade ameliorates fructose-induced salt-sensitive hypertension, basal PT Na⁺ reabsorption and its sensitivity to the aforementioned factors have not been studied in this model. We hypothesized consuming fructose with a high-salt diet selectively enhances the sensitivity of PT transport to Ang II. We investigated the effects of Ang II, ANP and NE on PT Na reabsorption in rats fed a high-salt diet drinking tap water (HS) or 20% fructose (HS-FRU). Oxygen consumption (QO₂) was used as a measure of all ATP-dependent transport processes. Na⁺/K⁺-ATPase and Na⁺/H⁺-exchange (NHE) activities were studied because they represent primary apical and basolateral transporters in this segment. The effect of 10^-12 mol/L Ang II in QO₂ by PTs from HS-FRU was larger than HS (p < 0.02; n = 7). In PTs from HS-FRU 10^-12 mol/L Ang II stimulated NHE activity by 2.6 ± 0.7 arbitrary fluorescence units/s (p < 0.01; n = 5) but not in those from HS. The stimulatory effect of Ang II on PT Na⁺/K⁺-ATPase activity was not affected by HS-FRU. Responses of QO₂ and NHE activity to ANP did not differ between groups. The response of QO₂ to NE was unaltered by HS-FRU. We concluded that the sensitivity of PT Na⁺ reabsorption specifically to Ang II is enhanced by HS-FRU. This maintains high rates of transport even in the presence of low concentrations of the peptide, and likely contributes to the hypertension.

Action of ANP on the nongenomic dose-dependent biphasic effect of aldosterone on NHE1 in proximal S3 segment

The rapid (2 min) nongenomic effects of aldosterone (ALDO) and/or spironolactone (MR antagonist), RU 486 (GR antagonist), atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP) and dimethyl-BAPTA (BAPTA) on the intracellular pH recovery rate (pHirr) via NHE1 (basolateral Na⁺/H⁺ exchanger isoform), after the acid load induced by NH₄Cl, and on the cytosolic free calcium concentration ([Ca²⁺](i)) were investigated in the proximal S3 segment isolated from rats, by the probes BCECF-AM and FLUO-4-AM, respectively. The basal pHi was 7.15±0.008 and the basal pHirr was 0.195±0.012 pH units/min (number of tubules/number of tubular areas=16/96). Our results confirmed the rapid biphasic effect of ALDO on NHE1: ALDO (10⁻¹² M) increases the pHirr to approximately 59% of control value, and ALDO (10⁻⁶ M) decreases it to approximately 49%. Spironolactone did not change these effects, but RU 486 inhibited the stimulatory effect and maintained the inhibitory effect. ANP (10⁻⁶ M) or BAPTA (5×10⁻⁵ M) alone had no significant effect on NHE1 but prevented both effects of ALDO on this exchanger. The basal [Ca²⁺](i) was 104±3 nM (15), and ALDO (10⁻¹² or 10⁻⁶ M) increased the basal [Ca²⁺](i) to approximately 50% or 124%, respectively. RU 486, ANP and BAPTA decreased the [Ca²⁺](i) and inhibited the stimulatory effect of both doses of ALDO. The results suggest the involvement of GR on the nongenomic effects of ALDO and indicate a pHirr-regulating role for [Ca²⁺](i) that is mediated by NHE1, stimulated/impaired by ALDO, and affected by ANP or BAPTA with ALDO. The observed nongenomic hormonal interaction in the S3 segment may represent a rapid and physiologically relevant regulatory mechanism in the intact animal under conditions of volume alterations.

Direct action of aldosterone on bicarbonate reabsorption in in vivo cortical proximal tubule

The direct action of aldosterone (10−12 M) on net bicarbonate reabsorption ( JHCO3−) was evaluated by stationary microperfusion of an in vivo middle proximal tubule (S2) of rat kidney, using H ion-sensitive microelectrodes. Aldosterone in luminally perfused tubules caused a significant increase in JHCO3− from a mean control value of 2.84 ± 0.08 [49/19 ( n° of measurements/ n° of tubules)] to 4.20 ± 0.15 nmol·cm−2·s−1 (58/10). Aldosterone perfused into peritubular capillaries also increased JHCO3−, compared with basal levels during intact capillary perfusion with blood. In addition, in isolated perfused tubules aldosterone causes a transient increase of cytosolic free calcium ([Ca2+]i), monitored fluorometrically. In the presence of ethanol (in similar concentration used to prepare the hormonal solution), spironolactone (10−6 M, a mineralocorticoid receptor antagonist), actinomycin D (10−6 M, an inhibitor of gene transcription), or cycloheximide (40 mM, an inhibitor of protein synthesis), the JHCO3− and the [Ca2+]i were not different from the control value; these drugs also did not prevent the stimulatory effect of aldosterone on JHCO3− and on [Ca2+]i. However, in the presence of RU 486 alone [10−6 M, a classic glucocorticoid receptor (GR) antagonist], a significant decrease on JHCO3− and on [Ca2+]i was observed; this antagonist also inhibited the stimulatory effect of aldosterone on JHCO3− and on [Ca2+]i. These studies indicate that luminal or peritubular aldosterone (10−12 M) has a direct nongenomic stimulatory effect on JHCO3− and on [Ca2+]i in proximal tubule and that probably GR participates in this process. The data also indicate that endogenous aldosterone stimulates JHCO3− in middle proximal tubule.

Atrial natriuretic peptide attenuates ANG II-induced hypertrophy of renal tubular cells

ANG II arrests LLC-PK1 cells in the G1 phase of the cell cycle and induces hypertrophy, an effect mediated by induction of p27Kip1. We studied whether atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP) may modulate ANG II-induced hypertrophy and p27Kip1 expression in tubular LLC-PK1 cells. ANP, through its fragments 3---28 and 4---27, prevented ANG II-induced cell cycle arrest. ANP inhibited >80% of ANG II-induced p27Kip1 protein expression (Western blots). ANP stimulated expression of MKP-1, a phosphatase involved in dephosphorylation of p44/42 mitogen-activated protein (MAP) kinase, up to 12 h. ANP prevented the ANG II-mediated phosphorylation peak of MAP kinase after 12 h of stimulation. 8-Bromo-cGMP mimicked all the effects of ANP. Transfection with MKP-1 antisense, but not sense, oligonucleotides abolished the modifying role of ANP on ANG II-mediated cell cycle arrest. The effect of ANP on ANG II-mediated hypertrophy of LLC-PK1 cells is regulated on the level of MAP kinase phosphorylation, a key step in the induction of p27Kip1. Although ANP and ANG II both stimulate generation of reactive oxygen species, ANP additionally induces expression of MKP-1, leading to interference with ANG II-mediated MAP kinase phosphorylation.

Interaction of angiotensin II and atrial natriuretic peptide on pH(i) regulation in MDCK cells

The effect of ANG II and atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP) on intracellular pH (pH(i)) and cytosolic free calcium concentration ([Ca(2+)](i)) was investigated in Madin-Darby canine kidney cells by using the fluorescent probes 2', 7'-bis(2-carboxyethyl)-5(6)-carboxyfluorescein-acetoxymethyl ester (AM) and fura 2-AM or fluo 4-AM. pH(i) recovery rate was examined in the first 2 min after the acidification of pH(i) with a NH(4)Cl pulse. In the control situation, the pH(i) recovery rate was 0.088 +/- 0.014 pH units/min (n = 14); in the absence of external Na(+), this value was decreased. ANG II (10(-12) or 10(-9) M) caused an increase in this value, but ANG II (10(-7) M) decreased it. ANP (10(-6) M) or dimethyl-1,2-bis(2-aminophenoxy)ethane-N,N,N', N'-tetraacetic acid (BAPTA)-AM (50 microM) alone did not affect this value but impaired both stimulatory and inhibitory effects of ANG II. ANG II (10(-12), 10(-9), or 10(-7) M) increased [Ca(2+)](i) progressively from 99 +/- 10 (n = 20) to 234 +/- 7 mM (n = 10). ANP or dimethyl-BAPTA-AM decreases [Ca(2+)](i), and the subsequent addition of ANG II caused a recovery of [Ca(2+)](i) but without reaching ANG II values found in the absence of these agents. The results indicate a role for [Ca(2+)](i) in regulating the process of pH(i) recovery mediated by the Na(+)/H(+) exchanger, stimulated/impaired by ANG II, and not affected by ANP or ANG II plus ANP. This hormonal interaction may represent physiologically relevant regulation in conditions of volume alterations in the intact animal.