Comparable GABAergic Mechanisms of Hippocampal Seizurelike Activity in Posttetanic and Low-Mg2+ Conditions

A genetically targeted ion sensor reveals distinct seizure-related chloride and pH dynamics in GABAergic interneuron populations

Intracellular chloride and pH play fundamental roles in determining a neuron's synaptic inhibition and excitability. Yet it has been difficult to measure changes in these ions during periods of heightened network activity, such as occur in epilepsy. Here we develop a version of the fluorescent reporter, ClopHensorN, to enable simultaneous quantification of chloride and pH in genetically defined neurons during epileptiform activity. We compare pyramidal neurons to the major GABAergic interneuron subtypes in the mouse hippocampus, which express parvalbumin (PV), somatostatin (SST), or vasoactive intestinal polypeptide (VIP). Interneuron populations exhibit higher baseline chloride, with PV interneurons exhibiting the highest levels. During an epileptiform discharge, however, all subtypes converge upon a common elevated chloride level. Concurrent with these dynamics, epileptiform activity leads to different degrees of intracellular acidification, which reflect baseline pH. Thus, a new optical tool for dissociating chloride and pH reveals neuron-specific ion dynamics during heightened network activity.

KCC2 Chloride Transport Contributes to the Termination of Ictal Epileptiform Activity

Recurrent seizures intensely activate GABAA receptors (GABAA-Rs), which induces transient neuronal chloride ([Cl-]i) elevations and depolarizing GABA responses that contribute to the failure of inhibition that engenders further seizures and anticonvulsant resistance. The K+-Cl- cotransporter KCC2 is responsible for Cl- extrusion and restoration of [Cl-]i equilibrium (ECl) after synaptic activity, but at the cost of increased extracellular potassium which may retard K+-Cl- extrusion, depolarize neurons, and potentiate seizures. Thus, KCC2 may either diminish or facilitate seizure activity, and both proconvulsant and anticonvulsant effects of KCC2 inhibition have been reported. It is now necessary to identify the loci of these divergent responses by assaying both the electrographic effects and the ionic effects of KCC2 manipulation. We therefore determined the net effects of KCC2 transport activity on cytoplasmic chloride elevation and Cl- extrusion rates during spontaneous recurrent ictal-like epileptiform discharges (ILDs) in organotypic hippocampal slices in vitro, as well as the correlation between ionic and electrographic effects. We found that the KCC2 antagonist VU0463271 reduced Cl- extrusion rates, increased ictal [Cl-]i elevation, increased ILD duration, and induced status epilepticus (SE). In contrast, the putative KCC2 upregulator CLP257 improved chloride homeostasis and reduced the duration and frequency of ILDs in a concentration-dependent manner. Our results demonstrate that measuring both the ionic and electrographic effects of KCC2 transport clarify the impact of KCC2 modulation in specific models of epileptiform activity. Anticonvulsant effects predominate when KCC2-mediated chloride transport rather than potassium buffering is the rate-limiting step in restoring ECl and the efficacy of GABAergic inhibition during recurrent ILDs.

Interneuronal Network Activity at the Onset of Seizure-Like Events in Entorhinal Cortex Slices

The onset of focal seizures in humans and in different animal models of focal epilepsy correlates with reduction of neuronal firing and enhanced interneuronal network activity. Whether this phenomenon contributes to seizure generation is still unclear. We used the in vitro entorhinal cortex slices bathed in 4-aminopirydine (4-AP) as an experimental paradigm model to evaluate the correlation between interneuronal GABAergic network activity and seizure-like events. Epileptiform discharges were recorded in layer V-VI pyramidal neurons and fast-spiking interneurons in slices from male and female mice and in the isolated female guinea pig brain preparation during perfusion with 4-AP. We observed that 90% of seizure-like events recorded in principal cells were preceded by outward currents coupled with extracellular potassium shifts, abolished by pharmacological blockade of GABA_A receptors. Potassium elevations associated to GABA_A receptor-mediated population events were confirmed in the entorhinal cortex of the in vitro isolated whole guinea pig brain. Fast-rising and sustained extracellular potassium increases associated to interneuronal network activity consistently preceded the initiation of seizure-like events. We conclude that in the 4-AP seizure model, interneuronal network activity occurs before 4-AP-induced seizures and therefore supports a role of interneuron activity in focal seizure generation.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT The paper focuses on the mechanisms of ictogenesis, a topic that requires a step beyond the simplistic view that seizures, and epilepsy, are due to an increase of excitatory network activity. Focal temporal lobe seizures in humans and in several experimental epilepsies likely correlate with a prevalent activation of interneurons. The potassium channel blocker 4-aminopyridine reliably induces seizure-like events in temporal lobe structures. Herein, we show that a majority of seizures in the entorhinal cortex starts with interneuronal network activity accompanied by a fast and sustained increase in extracellular potassium. Our new findings reinforce and add a new piece of evidence to the proposal that limbic seizures can be supported by GABAergic hyperactivity.

GABAergic networks jump-start focal seizures

Abnormally enhanced glutamatergic excitation is commonly believed to mark the onset of a focal seizure. This notion, however, is not supported by firm evidence, and it will be challenged here. A general reduction of unit firing has been indeed observed in association with low-voltage fast activity at the onset of seizures recorded during presurgical intracranial monitoring in patients with focal, drug-resistant epilepsies. Moreover, focal seizures in animal models start with increased γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA)ergic interneuronal activity that silences principal cells. In vitro studies have shown that synchronous activation of GABAA receptors occurs at seizure onset and causes sizeable elevations in extracellular potassium, thus facilitating neuronal recruitment and seizure progression. A paradoxical involvement of GABAergic networks is required for the initiation of focal seizures characterized by low-voltage fast activity, which represents the most common seizure-onset pattern in focal epilepsies.

Heterogeneous effects of antiepileptic drugs in an in vitro epilepsy model--a functional multineuron calcium imaging study

Epilepsy is a chronic brain disease characterised by recurrent seizures. Many studies of this disease have focused on local neuronal activity, such as local field potentials in the brain. In addition, several recent studies have elucidated the collective behavior of individual neurons in a neuronal network that emits epileptic activity. However, little is known about the effects of antiepileptic drugs on neuronal networks during seizure-like events (SLEs) at single-cell resolution. Using functional multineuron Ca(2+) imaging (fMCI), we monitored the activities of multiple neurons in the rat hippocampal CA1 region on treatment with the proconvulsant bicuculline under Mg(2+) -free conditions. Bicuculline induced recurrent synchronous Ca(2+) influx, and the events were correlated with SLEs. Other proconvulsants, such as 4-aminopyridine, pentetrazol, and pilocarpine, also induced synchronous Ca(2+) influx. We found that the antiepileptic drugs phenytoin, flupirtine, and ethosuximide, which have different mechanisms of action, exerted heterogeneous effects on bicuculline-induced synchronous Ca(2+) influx. Phenytoin and flupirtine significantly decreased the peak, the amount of Ca(2+) influx and the duration of synchronous events in parallel with the duration of SLEs, whereas they did not abolish the synchronous events themselves. Ethosuximide increased the duration of synchronous Ca(2+) influx and SLEs. Furthermore, the magnitude of the inhibitory effect of phenytoin on the peak synchronous Ca(2+) influx level differed according to the peak amplitude of the synchronous event in each individual cell. Evaluation of the collective behavior of individual neurons by fMCI seems to be a powerful tool for elucidating the profiles of antiepileptic drugs.

Synchronous inhibitory potentials precede seizure-like events in acute models of focal limbic seizures

Interictal spikes in models of focal seizures and epilepsies are sustained by the synchronous activation of glutamatergic and GABAergic networks. The nature of population spikes associated with seizure initiation (pre-ictal spikes; PSs) is still undetermined. We analyzed the networks involved in the generation of both interictal and PSs in acute models of limbic cortex ictogenesis induced by pharmacological manipulations. Simultaneous extracellular and intracellular recordings from both principal cells and interneurons were performed in the medial entorhinal cortex of the in vitro isolated guinea pig brain during focal interictal and ictal discharges induced in the limbic network by intracortical and brief arterial infusions of either bicuculline methiodide (BMI) or 4-aminopyridine (4AP). Local application of BMI in the entorhinal cortex did not induce seizure-like events (SLEs), but did generate periodic interictal spikes sensitive to the glutamatergic non-NMDA receptor antagonist DNQX. Unlike local applications, arterial perfusion of either BMI or 4AP induced focal limbic SLEs. PSs just ahead of SLE were associated with hyperpolarizing potentials coupled with a complete blockade of firing in principal cells and burst discharges in putative interneurons. Interictal population spikes recorded from principal neurons between two SLEs correlated with a depolarizing potential. We demonstrate in two models of acute limbic SLE that PS events are different from interictal spikes and are sustained by synchronous activation of inhibitory networks. Our findings support a prominent role of synchronous network inhibition in the initiation of a focal seizure.

Excitatory effects of parvalbumin-expressing interneurons maintain hippocampal epileptiform activity via synchronous afterdischarges

Epileptic seizures are characterized by periods of hypersynchronous, hyperexcitability within brain networks. Most seizures involve two stages: an initial tonic phase, followed by a longer clonic phase that is characterized by rhythmic bouts of synchronized network activity called afterdischarges (ADs). Here we investigate the cellular and network mechanisms underlying hippocampal ADs in an effort to understand how they maintain seizure activity. Using in vitro hippocampal slice models from rats and mice, we performed electrophysiological recordings from CA3 pyramidal neurons to monitor network activity and changes in GABAergic signaling during epileptiform activity. First, we show that the highest synchrony occurs during clonic ADs, consistent with the idea that specific circuit dynamics underlie this phase of the epileptiform activity. We then show that ADs require intact GABAergic synaptic transmission, which becomes excitatory as a result of a transient collapse in the chloride (Cl(-)) reversal potential. The depolarizing effects of GABA are strongest at the soma of pyramidal neurons, which implicates somatic-targeting interneurons in AD activity. To test this, we used optogenetic techniques to selectively control the activity of somatic-targeting parvalbumin-expressing (PV(+)) interneurons. Channelrhodopsin-2-mediated activation of PV(+) interneurons during the clonic phase generated excitatory GABAergic responses in pyramidal neurons, which were sufficient to elicit and entrain synchronous AD activity across the network. Finally, archaerhodopsin-mediated selective silencing of PV(+) interneurons reduced the occurrence of ADs during the clonic phase. Therefore, we propose that activity-dependent Cl(-) accumulation subverts the actions of PV(+) interneurons to perpetuate rather than terminate pathological network hyperexcitability during the clonic phase of seizures.

GABAergic transmission facilitates ictogenesis and synchrony between CA3, hilus, and dentate gyrus in slices from epileptic rats

The impact of regional hippocampal interactions and GABAergic transmission on ictogenesis remain unclear. Cortico-hippocampal slices from pilocarpine-treated epileptic rats were compared with controls to investigate associations between seizurelike events (SLE), GABAergic transmission, and neuronal synchrony within and between cortico-hippocampal regions. Multielectrode array recordings revealed more prevalent hippocampal SLE in epileptic tissue when excitatory transmission was enhanced and GABAergic transmission was intact [removal of Mg(2+) (0Mg)] than when GABAergic transmission was blocked [removal of Mg(2+) + bicuculline methiodide (0Mg+BMI)]. When activity within individual regions was analyzed, spectral and temporal slow oscillation/SLE correlations and cross-correlations were highest within the hilus of epileptic tissue during SLE but were similar in 0Mg and 0Mg+BMI. GABAergic facilitation of spectral "slow" oscillation and ripple correlations was most prominent within CA3 of epileptic tissue during SLE. When activity between regions was analyzed, slow oscillation and ripple coherence was highest between the hilus and dentate gyrus as well as between the hilus and CA3 of epileptic tissue during SLE and was significantly higher in 0Mg than 0Mg+BMI. High 0Mg-induced SLE cross-correlations between the hilus and dentate gyrus as well as between the hilus and CA3 were reduced or abolished in 0Mg+BMI. SLE cross-correlation lag measurements provided evidence for a monosynaptic connection from the hilus to the dentate gyrus during SLE. Findings implicate the hilus as an oscillation generator, whose impact on other cortico-hippocampal regions is mediated by GABAergic transmission. Data also suggest that GABAA receptor-mediated transmission facilitates back-propagation from CA3/hilus to the dentate gyrus and that this back-propagation augments SLE in epileptic hippocampus.

Effect of HCO3(-) ions on the ATP-dependent GABA(A) receptor-coupled Cl(-) channel in rat brain plasma membranes

We studied the effect of Cl(-) (10-75 mM) and HCO(3)(-) ions (10-25 mM) on the ATP-dependent GABA(A) receptor-coupled Cl(-) channel (Cl(-)-ATPase) in rat brain plasma membranes. The total enzyme activity was detected in the presence of both anions at a Cl(-)/ HCO(3)(-) ratio of 5:1 (Cl(-), HCO(3)(-)-ATPase). Specific inhibitors of P-type transport ATPases (N-ethylmaleimide, o-vanadate, and oligomycin) suppressed Cl(-), HCO(3)(-)-ATPase, while the Cl(-)- and HCO(3)(-)-ATPase activities were low sensitive to these ligands. Bicuculline abolished the activating effect of Cl(-) and HCO(3)(-) ions on the enzyme. HCO(3)(-) ions had no effect on the ATP-dependent Cl(-) transport into proteoliposomes (with the involvement of reconstituted ATPase). In experiment with Cl(-)-preloaded liposomes, addition of HCO(3)(-) ions to the incubation medium caused the reversion of Cl(-) transport (ion efflux from liposomes). Our results suggest that HCO(3)(-) ions play an important role in the modification of properties of the ATP-dependent GABA(A) receptor-coupled Cl(-) channel and GABA(A) receptor-induced Cl(-)/ HCO(3)(-) exchange. These ions are probably involved in GABA(A) receptor-induced Cl(-)/ HCO(3)(-) exchange in neuronal membranes.

Hub GABA neurons mediate gamma-frequency oscillations at ictal-like event onset in the immature hippocampus

Gamma-frequency oscillations (GFOs, >40 Hz) are a general network signature at seizure onset at all stages of development, with possible deleterious consequences in the immature brain. At early developmental stages, the simultaneous occurrence of GFOs in different brain regions suggests the existence of a long-ranging synchronizing mechanism at seizure onset. Here, we show that hippocamposeptal (HS) neurons, which are GABA long-range projection neurons, are mandatory to drive the firing of hippocampal interneurons in a high-frequency regime at the onset of epileptiform discharges in the intact, immature septohippocampal formation. The synchronized firing of interneurons in turn produces GFOs, which are abolished after the elimination of a small number of HS neurons. Because they provide the necessary fast conduit for pacing large neuronal populations and display intra- and extrahippocampal long-range projections, HS neurons appear to belong to the class of hub cells that play a crucial role in the synchronization of developing networks.

Adenosine release during seizures attenuates GABAA receptor-mediated depolarization

Seizure-induced release of the neuromodulator adenosine is a potent endogenous anticonvulsant mechanism, which limits the extension of seizures and mediates seizure arrest. For this reason several adenosine-based therapies for epilepsy are currently under development. However, it is not known how adenosine modulates GABAergic transmission in the context of seizure activity. This may be particularly relevant as strong activation of GABAergic inputs during epileptiform activity can switch GABA(A) receptor (GABA(A)R) signaling from inhibitory to excitatory, which is a process that plays a significant role in intractable epilepsies. We used gramicidin-perforated patch-clamp recordings to investigate the role of seizure-induced adenosine release in the modulation of postsynaptic GABA(A)R signaling in pyramidal neurons of rat hippocampus. Consistent with previous reports, GABA(A)R responses during seizure activity transiently switched from hyperpolarizing to depolarizing and excitatory. We found that adenosine released during the seizure significantly attenuated the depolarizing GABA(A)R responses and also reduced the extent of the after-discharge phase of the seizure. These effects were mimicked by exogenous adenosine administration and could not be explained by a change in chloride homeostasis mechanisms that set the reversal potential for GABA(A)Rs, or by a change in the conductance of GABA(A)Rs. Rather, A(1)R-dependent activation of potassium channels increased the cell's membrane conductance and thus had a shunting effect on GABA(A)R currents. As depolarizing GABA(A)R signaling has been implicated in seizure initiation and progression, the adenosine-induced attenuation of depolarizing GABA(A)R signaling may represent an important mechanism by which adenosine can limit seizure activity.

Is slack an intrinsic seizure terminator?

Understanding how epileptic seizures are initiated and propagated across large brain networks is difficult, but an even greater mystery is what makes them stop. Failure of spontaneous seizure termination leads to status epilepticus-a state of uninterrupted seizure activity that can cause death or permanent brain damage. Global factors, like changes in neuromodulators and ion concentrations, are likely to play major roles in spontaneous seizure cessation, but individual neurons also have intrinsic active ion currents that may contribute. The recently discovered gene Slack encodes a sodium-activated potassium channel that mediates a major proportion of the outward current in many neurons. Although given little attention, the current flowing through this channel may have properties consistent with a role in seizure termination.

GABAergic synchronization in the limbic system and its role in the generation of epileptiform activity

GABA is the main inhibitory neurotransmitter in the adult forebrain, where it activates ionotropic type A and metabotropic type B receptors. Early studies have shown that GABA(A) receptor-mediated inhibition controls neuronal excitability and thus the occurrence of seizures. However, more complex, and at times unexpected, mechanisms of GABAergic signaling have been identified during epileptiform discharges over the last few years. Here, we will review experimental data that point at the paradoxical role played by GABA(A) receptor-mediated mechanisms in synchronizing neuronal networks, and in particular those of limbic structures such as the hippocampus, the entorhinal and perirhinal cortices, or the amygdala. After having summarized the fundamental characteristics of GABA(A) receptor-mediated mechanisms, we will analyze their role in the generation of network oscillations and their contribution to epileptiform synchronization. Whether and how GABA(A) receptors influence the interaction between limbic networks leading to ictogenesis will be also reviewed. Finally, we will consider the role of altered inhibition in the human epileptic brain along with the ability of GABA(A) receptor-mediated conductances to generate synchronous depolarizing events that may lead to ictogenesis in human epileptic disorders as well.

Low-magnesium medium induces epileptiform activity in mouse olfactory bulb slices

Magnesium-free medium can be used in brain slice studies to enhance glutamate receptor function, but this manipulation causes seizure-like activity in many cortical areas. The rodent olfactory bulb (OB) slice is a popular preparation, and potentially ictogenic ionic conditions have often been used to study odor processing. We studied low Mg(2+)-induced epileptiform discharges in mouse OB slices using extracellular and whole cell electrophysiological recordings. Low-Mg(2+) medium induced two distinct types of epileptiform activity: an intraglomerular delta-frequency oscillation resembling slow sniff-induced activity and minute-long seizure-like events (SLEs) consisting of large negative-going field potentials accompanied by sustained depolarization of output neurons. SLEs were dependent on N-methyl-D-aspartate receptors and sodium currents and were facilitated by α-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazole propionate receptors. The events were initiated in the glomerular layer and propagated laterally through the external plexiform layer at a slow time scale. Our findings confirm that low-Mg(2+) medium should be used with caution in OB slices. Furthermore, the SLEs resembled the so-called slow direct current (DC) shift of clinical and experimental seizures, which has recently been recognized as being of great clinical importance. The OB slice may therefore provide a robust and unique in vitro model of acute seizures in which mechanisms of epileptiform DC shifts can be studied in isolation from fast oscillations.

Prototypic seizure activity driven by mature hippocampal fast-spiking interneurons

A variety of epileptic seizure models have shown that activation of glutamatergic pyramidal cells is usually required for rhythm generation and/or synchronization in hippocampal seizure-like oscillations in vitro. However, it still remains unclear whether GABAergic interneurons may be able to drive the seizure-like oscillations without glutamatergic transmission. Here, we found that electrical stimulation in rat hippocampal CA1 slices induced a putative prototype of seizure-like oscillations ("prototypic afterdischarge," 1.8-3.8 Hz) in mature pyramidal cells and interneurons in the presence of ionotropic glutamate receptor antagonists. The prototypic afterdischarge was abolished by GABA(A) receptor antagonists or gap junction blockers, but not by a metabotropic glutamate receptor antagonist or a GABA(B) receptor antagonist. Gramicidin-perforated patch-clamp and voltage-clamp recordings revealed that pyramidal cells were depolarized and frequently excited directly through excitatory GABAergic transmissions in each cycle of the prototypic afterdischarge. Interneurons that were actively spiking during the prototypic afterdischarge were mostly fast-spiking (FS) interneurons located in the strata oriens and pyramidale. Morphologically, these interneurons that might be "potential seizure drivers" included basket, chandelier, and bistratified cells. Furthermore, they received direct excitatory GABAergic input during the prototypic afterdischarge. The O-LM cells and most of the interneurons in the strata radiatum and lacunosum moleculare were not essential for the generation of prototypic afterdischarge. The GABA-mediated prototypic afterdischarge was observed later than the third postnatal week in the rat hippocampus. Our results suggest that an FS interneuron network alone can drive the prototypic form of electrically induced seizure-like oscillations through their excitatory GABAergic transmissions and presumably through gap junction-mediated communications.

Transition to seizures in the isolated immature mouse hippocampus: a switch from dominant phasic inhibition to dominant phasic excitation

The neural dynamics and mechanisms responsible for the transition from the interictal to the ictal state (seizures) are unresolved questions in epilepsy. It has been suggested that a shift from inhibitory to excitatory GABAergic drive can promote seizure generation. In this study, we utilized an experimental model of temporal lobe epilepsy which produces recurrent seizure-like events in the isolated immature mouse hippocampus (P8-16), perfused with low magnesium ACSF, to investigate the cellular dynamics of seizure transition. Whole-cell and perforated patch recordings from CA1 pyramidal cells and from fast- and non-fast-spiking interneurons in the CA1 stratum oriens hippocampal region showed a change in intracellular signal integration during the transition period, starting with dominant phasic inhibitory synaptic input, followed by dominant phasic excitation prior to a seizure. Efflux of bicarbonate ions through the GABA A receptor did not fully account for this excitation and GABAergic excitation via reversed IPSPs was also excluded as the prime mechanism generating the dominant excitation, since somatic and dendritic GABA A responses to externally applied muscimol remained hyperpolarizing throughout the transition period. In addition, abolishing EPSPs in a single neuron by intracellularly injected QX222, revealed that inhibitory synaptic drive was maintained throughout the entire transition period. We suggest that rather than a major shift from inhibitory to excitatory GABAergic drive prior to seizure onset, there is a change in the interaction between afferent synaptic inhibition, and afferent and intrinsic excitatory processes in pyramidal neurons and interneurons, with maintained inhibition and increasing, entrained 'overpowering' excitation during the transition to seizure.

Distinct types of ionic modulation of GABA actions in pyramidal cells and interneurons during electrical induction of hippocampal seizure-like network activity

It has recently been shown that electrical stimulation in normal extracellular fluid induces seizure-like afterdischarge activity that is always preceded by GABA-dependent slow depolarization. These afterdischarge responses are synchronous among mature hippocampal neurons and driven by excitatory GABAergic input. However, the differences in the mechanisms whereby the GABAergic signals in pyramidal cells and interneurons are transiently converted from hyperpolarizing to depolarizing (and even excitatory) have remained unclear. To clarify the network mechanisms underlying this rapid GABA conversion that induces afterdischarges, we examined the temporal changes in GABAergic responses in pyramidal cells and/or interneurons of the rat hippocampal CA1 area in vitro. The extents of slow depolarization and GABA conversion were much larger in the pyramidal cell group than in any group of interneurons. Besides GABA(A) receptor activation, neuronal excitation by ionotropic glutamate receptors enhanced GABA conversion in the pyramidal cells and consequent induction of afterdischarge. The slow depolarization was confirmed to consist of two distinct phases; an early phase that depended primarily on GABA(A)-mediated postsynaptic Cl- accumulation, and a late phase that depended on extracellular K+ accumulation, both of which were enhanced by glutamatergic neuron excitation. Moreover, extracellular K+ accumulation augmented each oscillatory response of the afterdischarge, probably by further Cl- accumulation through K+-coupled Cl- transporters. Our findings suggest that the GABA reversal potential may be elevated above their spike threshold predominantly in the pyramidal cells by biphasic Cl- intrusion during the slow depolarization in GABA- and glutamate-dependent fashion, leading to the initiation of seizure-like epileptiform activity.

SJ. Interneuron and pyramidal cell interplay during in vitro seizure-like events

Excitatory and inhibitory (EI) interactions shape network activity. However, little is known about the EI interactions in pathological conditions such as epilepsy. To investigate EI interactions during seizure-like events (SLEs), we performed simultaneous dual and triple whole cell and extracellular recordings in pyramidal cells and oriens interneurons in rat hippocampal CA1. We describe a novel pattern of interleaving EI activity during spontaneous in vitro SLEs generated by the potassium channel blocker 4-aminopyridine in the presence of decreased magnesium. Interneuron activity was increased during interictal periods. During ictal discharges interneurons entered into long-lasting depolarization block (DB) with suppression of spike generation; simultaneously, pyramidal cells produced spike trains with increased frequency (6-14 Hz) and correlation. After this period of runaway excitation, interneuron postictal spiking resumed and pyramidal cells became progressively quiescent. We performed correlation measures of cell-pair interactions using either the spikes alone or the subthreshold postsynaptic interspike signals. EE spike correlation was notably increased during interneuron DB, whereas subthreshold EE correlation decreased. EI spike correlations increased at the end of SLEs, whereas II subthreshold correlations increased during DB. Our findings underscore the importance of complex cell-type-specific neuronal interactions in the formation of seizure patterns.