Evidence for basic units of upper limb muscle synergies underlying a variety of complex human manipulations

Shoulder kinematics and muscle synergy during multi-plane humeral elevation and lowering

Shoulder kinematics and muscle activity vary depending on the elevation plane of the upper limb. However, how muscle coordination, which plays a crucial role in controlling shoulder kinematics, differs among elevation planes remains unclear. This study compared shoulder kinematics, muscle synergies, and muscle activation levels across different elevation planes to better understand the neuromuscular mechanisms underlying shoulder kinematics. Shoulder kinematics and muscle activity were recorded during three upper limb elevation tasks (sagittal, scapular, and frontal plane elevation) in 12 subjects (7 males and 5 females). Muscle synergies were extracted using nonnegative matrix factorization, and individual muscle activity levels were calculated as a percentage of maximum voluntary contraction. Glenohumeral elevation was greatest during the sagittal plane elevation task and smallest during the frontal plane elevation task (maximum difference of 14.1°). The differences in kinematics among these elevation planes were suggested to be attributable to the early-stage activity level during elevation of one of the two extracted muscle synergies-specifically, the synergy believed to contribute to humeral head stabilization-and the activation amplitude of the anterior deltoid. Differences in scapular kinematics among three elevation plane tasks could not be explained by variations in muscle synergies but were instead suggested to result primarily from differences in the activation amplitudes of the three parts of the trapezius. To results suggest that shoulder kinematics are controlled by subtle changes in muscle synergy activation patterns and individual muscle activation levels.

Role of joint interactions in upper limb joint movements: a disability simulation study using wearable inertial sensors for 3D motion capture

BACKGROUND

Restriction of movement at a joint due to disease or dysfunction can alter the range of motion (ROM) at other joints due to joint interactions. In this paper, we quantify the extent to which joint restrictions impact upper limb joint movements by conducting a disability simulation study that used wearable inertial sensors for three-dimensional (3D) motion capture.

METHODS

We employed the Wearable Inertial Sensors for Exergames (WISE) system for assessing the ROM at the shoulder (flexion-extension, abduction-adduction, and internal-external rotation), elbow (flexion-extension), and forearm (pronation-supination). We recruited 20 healthy individuals to first perform instructed shoulder, elbow, and forearm movements without any external restrictions, and then perform the same movements with restriction braces placed to limit movement at the shoulder, elbow, and forearm, separately, to simulate disability. To quantify the extent to which a restriction at a non-instructed joint affected movement at an instructed joint, we computed average percentage reduction in ROM in the restricted versus unrestricted conditions. Moreover, we performed analysis of variance and post hoc Tukey tests (q statistic) to determine the statistical significance (p < 0.05 denoted using *) of the differences in ROM of an instructed joint in the unrestricted versus restricted conditions.

RESULTS

Restricting movement at the shoulder led to a large reduction in the average ROM for elbow flexion-extension (21.93%, q = 9.34*) and restricting elbow movement significantly reduced the average ROM for shoulder flexion-extension (17.77%, q = 8.05*), shoulder abduction-adduction (19.80%, q = 7.60*), and forearm pronation-supination (14.04%, q = 4.96*). Finally, restricting the forearm significantly reduced the average ROM for shoulder internal-external rotation (16.71%, q = 3.81*) and elbow flexion-extension (10.01%, q = 4.27*).

CONCLUSIONS

Joint interactions across non-instructed joints can reduce the ROM of instructed movements. Assessment of ROM in the real-world using 3D motion capture, for example using the WISE system, can aid in understanding movement limitations, informing interventions, and monitoring progress with rehabilitation.

Effects of Kitchen Cooking Height on Upper Limb Muscle Activation, Posture, and Perceived Discomfort of Chinese Older and Young Women

Inappropriate kitchen cooking height may lead to uncomfortable and muscle fatigue. This study aims to compare the effects of kitchen cooking height on upper limb muscle activation, posture, and perceived discomfort among different age groups. Fifteen older women and fifteen young Chinese women each completed three consecutive 20 s simulated cooking tasks at five different heights. Surface electromyography, motion capture, and Borg CR10 scale were used to measure muscle loading. Results showed that the main power muscles of the cooking task were the anterior deltoid, brachioradialis, and biceps brachii. The higher muscle contribution rate of biceps brachii and triceps brachii was found in the younger group compared to the older group (p < 0.05). Muscle activation of the anterior deltoid (different in 1.28-2.87%), pectoralis major (different in 1.43-1.69%), and erector spinae (different in 0.6-1.21%), as well as right shoulder abduction (different in 5.91°-7.96°), were significantly higher in older group than in young group (p < 0.05). Muscle activation of the anterior deltoid and right shoulder abduction decreased significantly with decreasing height (p < 0.05). A height of 200-250 mm below the elbow was considered a more comfortable cooking height for both age groups. This provides data to support the design of cabinet sizes.

Concerto of movement: how expertise shapes the synergistic control of upper limb muscles in complex motor tasks with varying tempo and dynamics

Objective. This research aims to reveal how the synergistic control of upper limb muscles adapts to varying requirements in complex motor tasks and how expertise shapes the motor modules.Approach. We study the muscle synergies of a complex, highly skilled and flexible task-piano playing-and characterize expertise-related muscle-synergy control that permits the experts to effortlessly execute the same task at different tempo and force levels. Surface EMGs (28 muscles) were recorded from adult novice (N= 10) and expert (N= 10) pianists as they played scales and arpeggios at different tempo-force combinations. Muscle synergies were factorized from EMGs.Main results. We found that experts were able to cover both tempo and dynamic ranges using similar synergy selections and achieved better performance, while novices altered synergy selections more to adapt to the changing tempi and keystroke intensities compared with experts. Both groups relied on fine-tuning the muscle weights within specific synergies to accomplish the different task styles, while the experts could tune the muscles in a greater number of synergies, especially when changing the tempo, and switch tempo over a wider range.Significance. Our study sheds light on the control mechanism underpinning expertise-related motor flexibility in highly skilled motor tasks that require decade-long training. Our results have implications on musical and sports training, as well as motor prosthetic design.

Rectified Latent Variable Model-Based EMG Factorization of Inhibitory Muscle Synergy Components Related to Aging, Expertise and Force-Tempo Variations

Muscle synergy has been widely acknowledged as a possible strategy of neuromotor control, but current research has ignored the potential inhibitory components in muscle synergies. Our study aims to identify and characterize the inhibitory components within motor modules derived from electromyography (EMG), investigate the impact of aging and motor expertise on these components, and better understand the nervous system's adaptions to varying task demands. We utilized a rectified latent variable model (RLVM) to factorize motor modules with inhibitory components from EMG signals recorded from ten expert pianists when they played scales and pieces at different tempo-force combinations. We found that older participants showed a higher proportion of inhibitory components compared with the younger group. Senior experts had a higher proportion of inhibitory components on the left hand, and most inhibitory components became less negative with increased tempo or decreased force. Our results demonstrated that the inhibitory components in muscle synergies could be shaped by aging and expertise, and also took part in motor control for adapting to different conditions in complex tasks.

Arm muscle synergies enhance hand posture prediction in combination with forearm muscle synergies

Objective.We analyze and interpret arm and forearm muscle activity in relation with the kinematics of hand pre-shaping during reaching and grasping from the perspective of human synergistic motor control.Approach.Ten subjects performed six tasks involving reaching, grasping and object manipulation. We recorded electromyographic (EMG) signals from arm and forearm muscles with a mix of bipolar electrodes and high-density grids of electrodes. Motion capture was concurrently recorded to estimate hand kinematics. Muscle synergies were extracted separately for arm and forearm muscles, and postural synergies were extracted from hand joint angles. We assessed whether activation coefficients of postural synergies positively correlate with and can be regressed from activation coefficients of muscle synergies. Each type of synergies was clustered across subjects.Main results.We found consistency of the identified synergies across subjects, and we functionally evaluated synergy clusters computed across subjects to identify synergies representative of all subjects. We found a positive correlation between pairs of activation coefficients of muscle and postural synergies with important functional implications. We demonstrated a significant positive contribution in the combination between arm and forearm muscle synergies in estimating hand postural synergies with respect to estimation based on muscle synergies of only one body segment, either arm or forearm (p< 0.01). We found that dimensionality reduction of multi-muscle EMG root mean square (RMS) signals did not significantly affect hand posture estimation, as demonstrated by comparable results with regression of hand angles from EMG RMS signals.Significance.We demonstrated that hand posture prediction improves by combining activity of arm and forearm muscles and we evaluate, for the first time, correlation and regression between activation coefficients of arm muscle and hand postural synergies. Our findings can be beneficial for myoelectric control of hand prosthesis and upper-limb exoskeletons, and for biomarker evaluation during neurorehabilitation.

Motor unit modes in the calf muscles during a submaximal isometric contraction are changed by brief stretches

The purpose of our study was to investigate the influence of a stretch intervention on the common modulation of discharge rate among motor units in the calf muscles during a submaximal isometric contraction. The current report comprises a computational analysis of a motor unit dataset that we published previously (Mazzo et al., 2021). Motor unit activity was recorded from the three main plantar flexor muscles while participants performed an isometric contraction at 10% of the maximal voluntary contraction force before and after each of two interventions. The interventions were a control task (standing balance) and static stretching of the plantar flexor muscles. A factorization analysis on the smoothed discharge rates of the motor units from all three muscles yielded three modes that were independent of the individual muscles. The composition of the modes was not changed by the standing-balance task, whereas the stretching exercise reduced the average correlation in the second mode and increased it in the third mode. A centroid analysis on the correlation values showed that most motor units were associated with two or three modes, which were presumed to indicate shared synaptic inputs. The percentage of motor units adjacent to the seven centroids changed after both interventions: Control intervention, mode 1 decreased and the shared mode 1 + 2 increased; stretch intervention, shared modes either decreased (1 + 2) or increased (1 + 3). These findings indicate that the neuromuscular adjustments during both interventions were sufficient to change the motor unit modes when the same task was performed after each intervention. KEY POINTS: Based on covariation of the discharge rates of motor units in the calf muscles during a submaximal isometric contraction, factor analysis was used to assign the correlated discharge trains to three motor unit modes. The motor unit modes were determined from the combined set of all identified motor units across the three muscles before and after each participant performed a control and a stretch intervention. The composition of the motor unit modes changed after the stretching exercise, but not after the control task (standing balance). A centroid analysis on the distribution of correlation values found that most motor units were associated with a shared centroid and this distribution, presumably reflecting shared synaptic input, changed after both interventions. Our results demonstrate how the distribution of multiple common synaptic inputs to the motor neurons innervating the plantar flexor muscles changes after a brief series of stretches.

Direction-Specific Changes in Trunk Muscle Synergies in Individuals With Extension-Related Low Back Pain

Background Identifying altered trunk control is critical for treating extension-related low back pain (ERLBP), a common subgroup classified by clinical manifestations. The changed coordination of trunk muscles within this group during particular trunk tasks is still not clearly understood. Objectives The objective of this study is to investigate trunk muscle coordination during 11 trunk movement and stability tasks in individuals with ERLBP compared to non-low back pain (LBP) participants. Methods Thirteen individuals with ERLBP and non-LBP performed 11 trunk movement and stability tasks. We recorded the electromyographic activities of six back and abdominal muscles bilaterally. Trunk muscle coordination was assessed using the non-negative matrix factorization (NMF) method to identify trunk muscle synergies. Results The number of synergies in the ERLBP group during the cross-extension and backward bend tasks was significantly higher than in the non-LBP group (p<0.05). The cluster analysis identified the two trunk synergies for each task with strikingly similar muscle activation patterns between groups. In contrast, the ERLBP group exhibited additional trunk muscle synergies that were not identified in the non-LBP group. The number of synergies in the other tasks did not differ between groups (p>0.05). Conclusion Individuals with ERLBP presented directionally specific alterations in trunk muscle synergies that were considered as increased coactivations of multiple trunk muscles. These altered patterns may contribute to the excessive stabilization of and the high frequency of hyperextension in the spine associated with the development and persistence of ERLBP.

Effect of different postures and loads on joint motion and muscle activity in older adults during overhead retrieval

Introduction: Pain is a common health problem among older adults worldwide. Older adults tend to suffer from arm, lumbar, and back pain when using hanging cabinets. Methods: This study used surface electromyography to record muscle activity and a motion capture system to record joint motion to research effects of different loads and retrieval postures on muscle activity and joint range of motion when older adults retrieve objects from a high place, to provide optimised feedback for the design of hanging cabinet furniture. Results: We found that: 1) The activity of BB (Biceps brachii) on the side of the body interacting with the cabinet door was greater than that of UT (Upper trapezius) and BR (Brachial radius) when retrieving objects from a high place, the activity of UT on the side of the body interacting with a heavy object was greater than that of BB and BR. 2) The activity of UT decreases when the shoulder joint angle is greater than 90°, but the activity of BB increases as the angle increases. In contrast, increasing the object's mass causes the maximum load on the shoulder joint. 3) Among the different postures for overhead retrieval, alternating between the right and left hand is preferable for the overhead retrieval task. 4) Age had the most significant effect on overhead retrieval, followed by height (of person), and load changes were significantly different only at the experiment's left elbow joint and the L.BR. 5) Older adults took longer and exerted more effort to complete the task than younger adults, and static exercise in older adults may be more demanding on muscle activity in old age than powered exercise. Conclusion: These results help to optimise the design of hanging cabinet furniture. Regarding the height of hanging cabinets, 180 cm or less is required for regular retrieval movements if the human height is less than 150 cm. Concerning the depth of the hanging cabinets, different heights chose different comfort distances, which translated into the depth of the hanging cabinets; the greater the height, the greater the depth of the hanging cabinets to use.

Consistent control information driven musculoskeletal model for multiday myoelectric control

Objective.Musculoskeletal model (MM)-based myoelectric interface has aroused great interest in human-machine interaction. However, the performance of electromyography (EMG)-driven MM in long-term use would be degraded owing to the inherent non-stationary characteristics of EMG signals. Here, to improve the estimation performance without retraining, we proposed a consistent muscle excitation extraction approach based on an improved non-negative matrix factorization (NMF) algorithm for MM when applied to simultaneous hand and wrist movement prediction.Approach.We added constraints andL2-norm regularization terms to the objective function of classic NMF regarding muscle weighting matrix and time-varying profiles, through which stable muscle synergies across days were identified. The resultant profiles of these synergies were then used to drive the MM. Both offline and online experiments were conducted to evaluate the performance of the proposed method in inter-day scenarios.Main results.The results demonstrated significantly better and more robust performance over several competitive methods in inter-day experiments, including machine learning methods, EMG envelope-driven MM, and classic NMF-based MM. Furthermore, the analysis of control information on different days revealed the effectiveness of the proposed method in obtaining consistent muscle excitations.Significance.The outcomes potentially provide a novel and promising pathway for the robust and zero-retraining control of myoelectric interfaces.

Muscle synergy patterns as altered coordination strategies in individuals with chronic low back pain: a cross-sectional study

BACKGROUND

Chronic low back pain (CLBP) is a highly prevalent disease with poorly understood underlying mechanisms. In particular, altered trunk muscle coordination in response to specific trunk tasks remains largely unknown.

METHODS

We investigated the muscle synergies during 11 trunk movement and stability tasks in 15 healthy individuals (8 females and 7 males, aged 21. 3 (20.1-22.8) ± 0.6 years) and in 15 CLBP participants (8 females and 7 males, aged 20. 9 (20.2-22.6) ± 0.7 years) by recording the surface electromyographic activities of 12 back and abdominal muscles (six muscles unilaterally). Non-negative matrix factorization was performed to extract the muscle synergies.

RESULTS

We found six trunk muscle synergies and temporal patterns in both groups. The high similarity of the trunk synergies and temporal patterns in the groups suggests that both groups share the common feature of the trunk coordination strategy. We also found that trunk synergies related to the lumbar erector spinae showed lower variability in the CLBP group. This may reflect the impaired back muscles that reshape the trunk synergies in the fixed structure of CLBP. Furthermore, the higher variability of trunk synergies in the other muscle regions such as in the latissimus dorsi and oblique externus, which were activated in trunk stability tasks in the CLBP group, represented more individual motor strategies when the trunk tasks were highly demanding.

CONCLUSION

Our work provides the first demonstration that individual modular organization is fine-tuned while preserving the overall structures of trunk synergies and temporal patterns in the presence of persistent CLBP.

Variability of trunk muscle synergies underlying the multidirectional movements and stability trunk motor tasks in healthy individuals

Muscle synergy analysis is useful for investigating trunk coordination patterns based on the assumption that the central nervous system reduces the dimensionality of muscle activation to simplify movement. This study aimed to quantify the variability in trunk muscle synergy during various trunk motor tasks in healthy participants to provide reference data for evaluating trunk control strategies in patients and athletes. Sixteen healthy individuals performed 11 trunk movement and stability tasks with electromyography (EMG) recording of their spinal and abdominal muscles (6 bilaterally). Non-negative matrix factorization applied to the concatenated EMG of all tasks identified the five trunk muscle synergies (W) with their corresponding temporal patterns (C). The medians of within-cluster similarity defined by scalar products in W and rmax coefficient using the cross-correlation function in C were 0.73-0.86 and 0.64-0.75, respectively, while the inter-session similarities were 0.81-0.96 and 0.74-0.84, respectively. However, the lowest and highest values of both similarity indices were broad, reflecting the musculoskeletal system's redundancy within and between participants. Furthermore, the significant differences in the degree of variability between the trunk synergies may represent the different neural features of synergy organization and strategies to overcome the various mechanical demands of a motor task.