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Ouyang L, Li D, Li Z, Ma X, Yuan L, Fan L, Yang Z, Zhang Z, Li C, He Y, Chen X. IL-17 and TNF-β: Predictive biomarkers for transition to psychosis in ultra-high risk individuals. Front Psychiatry 2022; 13:1072380. [PMID: 36590607 PMCID: PMC9800867 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyt.2022.1072380] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/17/2022] [Accepted: 11/29/2022] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Dysregulation of immunity, such as levels of inflammatory factors, has been regarded as a sign of schizophrenia. Changes in cytokine levels are not only described in the early onset of disease, but also observed in ultra-high risk (UHR) individuals. This study aimed to investigate the potential of cytokines as biomarkers for psychotic disorders and in individuals at UHR of developing a psychotic disorder in the future. METHODS The Luminex liquid chip technology was used to detect the concentrations of Interferon-gamma (INF-γ), Interleukin (IL)-2, Interleukin (IL)-4, Interleukin (IL)-6, Interleukin (IL)-17, Interleukin-1beta (IL-1β), and Tumor Necrosis Factor-beta (TNF-β) in the plasma of all subjects. Meanwhile, the plasma level of Tumor Necrosis Factor-Alpha (TNF-α) was measured with the enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) kits. Then, the levels of these cytokines were compared among patients with Drug-naïve first-episode schizophrenia (FES; n = 40), UHR population (UHR; n = 49), and healthy controls (HCs; n = 30). Baseline cytokine levels were compared among UHR individuals who later transitioned (UHR-T; n = 14), those who did not transition (UHR-NT; n = 35), and HCs (n = 30). RESULTS Our analysis results showed that IL-1β levels were significantly higher in UHR group than HC group (p = 0.015). Meanwhile, TNF-α concentration was significantly increased in FES group compared with HC group (p = 0.027). IL-17 (p = 0.04) and TNF-β (p = 0.008) levels were significantly higher in UHR-T group compared with UHR-NT group. CONCLUSION In conclusion, our findings suggest that the immuno-inflammatory activation level is increased in the early stage of psychosis before psychotic conversion and the Drug-naïve FES. IL-1β and TNF-α are the representatives of the specific biomarkers for UHR and FES, respectively. IL-17 and TNF-β may be the potential selective predictive biomarkers for future transition in UHR individuals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lijun Ouyang
- Department of Psychiatry, National Clinical Research Center for Mental Disorders, The Second Xiangya Hospital of Central South University, Changsha, China.,Hunan Key Laboratory of Psychiatry and Mental Health, Mental Health Institute of Central South University, China National Technology Institute on Mental Disorders, Hunan Technology Institute of Psychiatry, Changsha, Hunan, China
| | - David Li
- Department of Psychiatry, National Clinical Research Center for Mental Disorders, The Second Xiangya Hospital of Central South University, Changsha, China.,Hunan Key Laboratory of Psychiatry and Mental Health, Mental Health Institute of Central South University, China National Technology Institute on Mental Disorders, Hunan Technology Institute of Psychiatry, Changsha, Hunan, China
| | - Zongchang Li
- Department of Psychiatry, National Clinical Research Center for Mental Disorders, The Second Xiangya Hospital of Central South University, Changsha, China.,Hunan Key Laboratory of Psychiatry and Mental Health, Mental Health Institute of Central South University, China National Technology Institute on Mental Disorders, Hunan Technology Institute of Psychiatry, Changsha, Hunan, China
| | - Xiaoqian Ma
- Department of Psychiatry, National Clinical Research Center for Mental Disorders, The Second Xiangya Hospital of Central South University, Changsha, China.,Hunan Key Laboratory of Psychiatry and Mental Health, Mental Health Institute of Central South University, China National Technology Institute on Mental Disorders, Hunan Technology Institute of Psychiatry, Changsha, Hunan, China
| | - Liu Yuan
- Department of Psychiatry, National Clinical Research Center for Mental Disorders, The Second Xiangya Hospital of Central South University, Changsha, China.,Hunan Key Laboratory of Psychiatry and Mental Health, Mental Health Institute of Central South University, China National Technology Institute on Mental Disorders, Hunan Technology Institute of Psychiatry, Changsha, Hunan, China
| | - Lejia Fan
- Department of Psychiatry, National Clinical Research Center for Mental Disorders, The Second Xiangya Hospital of Central South University, Changsha, China.,Hunan Key Laboratory of Psychiatry and Mental Health, Mental Health Institute of Central South University, China National Technology Institute on Mental Disorders, Hunan Technology Institute of Psychiatry, Changsha, Hunan, China
| | - Zihao Yang
- Department of Psychiatry, National Clinical Research Center for Mental Disorders, The Second Xiangya Hospital of Central South University, Changsha, China.,Hunan Key Laboratory of Psychiatry and Mental Health, Mental Health Institute of Central South University, China National Technology Institute on Mental Disorders, Hunan Technology Institute of Psychiatry, Changsha, Hunan, China
| | - Zhenmei Zhang
- Department of Psychiatry, National Clinical Research Center for Mental Disorders, The Second Xiangya Hospital of Central South University, Changsha, China.,Hunan Key Laboratory of Psychiatry and Mental Health, Mental Health Institute of Central South University, China National Technology Institute on Mental Disorders, Hunan Technology Institute of Psychiatry, Changsha, Hunan, China
| | - Chunwang Li
- Department of Radiology, Hunan Children's Hospital, Changsha, China
| | - Ying He
- Department of Psychiatry, National Clinical Research Center for Mental Disorders, The Second Xiangya Hospital of Central South University, Changsha, China.,Hunan Key Laboratory of Psychiatry and Mental Health, Mental Health Institute of Central South University, China National Technology Institute on Mental Disorders, Hunan Technology Institute of Psychiatry, Changsha, Hunan, China
| | - Xiaogang Chen
- Department of Psychiatry, National Clinical Research Center for Mental Disorders, The Second Xiangya Hospital of Central South University, Changsha, China.,Hunan Key Laboratory of Psychiatry and Mental Health, Mental Health Institute of Central South University, China National Technology Institute on Mental Disorders, Hunan Technology Institute of Psychiatry, Changsha, Hunan, China
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Sommonte F, Arduino I, Racaniello GF, Lopalco A, Lopedota AA, Denora N. The Complexity of the Blood-Brain Barrier and the Concept of Age-Related Brain Targeting: Challenges and Potential of Novel Solid Lipid-Based Formulations. J Pharm Sci 2021; 111:577-592. [PMID: 34469749 DOI: 10.1016/j.xphs.2021.08.029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/11/2021] [Revised: 08/26/2021] [Accepted: 08/27/2021] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Diseases that affect the Central Nervous System (CNS) are one of the most exciting challenges of recent years, as they are ubiquitous and affect all ages. Although these disorders show different etiologies, all treatments share the same difficulty represented by the Blood-Brain Barrier (BBB). This barrier acts as a protective system of the delicate cerebral microenvironment, isolating it and making extremely arduous delivering drugs to the brain. To overtake the obstacles provided by the BBB it is essential to explore the changes that affect it, to understand how to exploit these findings in the study and design of innovative brain targeted formulations. Interestingly, the concept of age-related targeting could prove to be a winning choice, as it allows to consider the type of treatment according to the different needs and peculiarities depending on the disease and the age of onset. In this review was considered the prospective contribution of lipid-based formulations, namely Solid Lipid Nanoparticles (SLNs) and Nanostructured Lipid Carriers (NLCs), which have been highlighted as able to overcome some limitations of other innovative approaches, thus representing a promising strategy for the non-invasive specific treatment of CNS-related diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Federica Sommonte
- Department of Pharmacy - Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Bari "Aldo Moro", 4 Orabona St., 70125, Bari, Italy
| | - Ilaria Arduino
- Department of Pharmacy - Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Bari "Aldo Moro", 4 Orabona St., 70125, Bari, Italy
| | | | - Antonio Lopalco
- Department of Pharmacy - Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Bari "Aldo Moro", 4 Orabona St., 70125, Bari, Italy
| | - Angela Assunta Lopedota
- Department of Pharmacy - Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Bari "Aldo Moro", 4 Orabona St., 70125, Bari, Italy
| | - Nunzio Denora
- Department of Pharmacy - Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Bari "Aldo Moro", 4 Orabona St., 70125, Bari, Italy.
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Balasa R, Barcutean L, Balasa A, Motataianu A, Roman-Filip C, Manu D. The action of TH17 cells on blood brain barrier in multiple sclerosis and experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis. Hum Immunol 2020; 81:237-243. [PMID: 32122685 DOI: 10.1016/j.humimm.2020.02.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/05/2019] [Revised: 02/05/2020] [Accepted: 02/20/2020] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
Th17 cells, known as a highly pro-inflammatory subtype of Th cells, are involved very early in numerous aspects of multiple sclerosis (MS) and experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE) neuropathology. A crucial event for the formation and accumulation of MS lesions is represented by the disruption of the blood brain barrier (BBB) in relapsing-remitting MS. Th17 cells also contribute to the progression of MS/EAE. These events will allow for the passage of inflammatory cells into the brain. Secondary to this, increased recruitment of neutrophils occurs, followed by increased protease activity that will continue to attract macrophages and monocytes, leading to brain inflammation with sustained myelin and axon damage. This review focuses mainly on the role of Th17 cells in penetrating the BBB and on their important effects on BBB disruption via their main secretion products, IL-17 and IL-22. We present the morphological aspects of Th17 cells that allow for intercellular contacts with BBB endothelial cells and the functional/secretory particularities of Th17 cells that allow for intercellular communications that enhance Th17 entry into the CNS. The cytokines and chemokines involved in these processes are described. In conclusion, Th17 cells can efficiently cross the BBB using pathways distinct from those used by Th1 cells, leading to BBB disruption, the activation of other inflammatory cells and neurodegeneration in MS patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rodica Balasa
- Neurology 1 Clinic, Emergency Clinical County Hospital Tirgu Mures, Romania; Neurology Department, University of Medicine, Pharmacy, Science and Technology Tirgu Mures, Romania
| | - Laura Barcutean
- Neurology 1 Clinic, Emergency Clinical County Hospital Tirgu Mures, Romania; Neurology Department, University of Medicine, Pharmacy, Science and Technology Tirgu Mures, Romania
| | - Adrian Balasa
- Neurosurgery Clinic, Emergency Clinical County Hospital Tirgu Mures, Romania
| | - Anca Motataianu
- Neurology 1 Clinic, Emergency Clinical County Hospital Tirgu Mures, Romania; Neurology Department, University of Medicine, Pharmacy, Science and Technology Tirgu Mures, Romania.
| | | | - Doina Manu
- Centre for Advanced Medical and Pharmaceutical Research, University of Medicine, Pharmacy, Science and Technology, Tirgu Mures, Romania
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The direct deleterious effect of Th17 cells in the nervous system compartment in multiple sclerosis and experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis: one possible link between neuroinflammation and neurodegeneration. REV ROMANA MED LAB 2020. [DOI: 10.2478/rrlm-2020-0005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
Abstract
Abstract
The processes of demyelination and neurodegeneration in the central nervous system (CNS) of multiple sclerosis (MS) patients and experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE) are secondary to numerous pathophysiological mechanisms. One of the main cellular players is the Th17 lymphocyte. One of the major functions described for Th17 cells is the upregulation of pro-inflammatory cytokines, such as IL-17 at the level of peripheral and CNS inflammation. This review will focus on the newly described and unexpected, direct role played by the Th17 cells in the CNS of MS patients and EAE models. Th17 and their main cytokine, IL-17, are actively involved in the onset and maintenance of the immune cascade in the CNS compartment as Th17 were found to achieve brain-homing potential. Direct interaction of myelin oligodendrocyte glycoprotein - specific Th17 with the neuronal cells firstly induces demyelination and secondly, extensive axonal damage. The Th17 cells promote an inflammatory B cell response beyond the BBB through the presence of infiltrating Th follicles. Due to their role in preventing remyelination and direct neurotoxic effect, Th17 cells might stand for an important connection between neuroinflammation and neurodegeneration in a devastating disease like MS. The Th17 cell populations have different mechanisms of provoking an autoimmune attack not only in the periphery but also in the CNS of MS patients.
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Haqqani AS, Stanimirovic DB. Prioritization of Therapeutic Targets of Inflammation Using Proteomics, Bioinformatics, and In Silico Cell-Cell Interactomics. Methods Mol Biol 2019; 2024:309-325. [PMID: 31364059 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4939-9597-4_20] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Protein-protein interactions play key roles in leukocyte extravasation process into the brain and have been attractive therapeutic targets for inhibiting brain inflammation using blocking (or neutralizing) antibodies. These targets include protein-protein interactions between cytokines (or chemokines) and their receptors on leukocytes and between adhesion molecules of leukocyte and brain endothelium. While a number of therapeutics against these targets are currently used in clinic for treatment of brain autoimmune and inflammatory disorders (e.g., multiple sclerosis), they are associated with side effects partly due to the off-target actions (i.e., nonspecific targets). There is a need for novel targets involved in the leukocyte extravasation process that are specific to leukocyte subsets or to individual inflammatory disorder and are amenable for drug development (i.e., druggable). We recently described the blood-brain barrier (BBB) Carta Project as a comprehensive collection of molecular "maps" consisting of multiple experimental omics (including RNA sequencing, proteomics, glycoproteomics, glycomics, metabolomics) and in silico informatics analyses on a number of mammalian species from hundreds of internal, publically available, or curated datasets. Utilizing the datasets and tools from the BBB Carta Project, we describe a methodology to identify novel "druggable" targets involving protein-protein interactions between activated leukocytes and brain endothelial cells using a combination of proteomics, bioinformatics, and in silico interactomics. The result is a prioritized list of protein-protein interactions in a network consisting of leukocyte-brain endothelial cell communication and contacts. These interactions can be further pursued for development of therapeutics such as neutralizing antibodies and their validation through preclinical testing. In addition to targeting brain inflammation, the method described here is applicable for peripheral inflammation and provides the opportunity to target important cell-cell interactions and communications that are more specific/selective for inflammatory disorders and improve currently available therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arsalan S Haqqani
- Human Health Therapeutics Research Centre, National Research Council of Canada, Ottawa, ON, Canada.
| | - Danica B Stanimirovic
- Human Health Therapeutics Research Centre, National Research Council of Canada, Ottawa, ON, Canada
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Synergism between cryoablation and GM-CSF: enhanced immune function of splenic dendritic cells in mice with glioma. Neuroreport 2015; 26:346-53. [PMID: 25735009 DOI: 10.1097/wnr.0000000000000351] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Glioma is the most common malignant primary brain tumor, and it has a poor prognosis. Studies have shown that cryoablation can activate antitumor immunoeffects by promoting the augmentation of dendritic cells (DCs). Granulocyte macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF) has been shown to be useful for immunotherapy against glioma because it can stimulate DCs to present tumor antigen. Previous studies have shown that cryoablation and GM-CSF can exert antitumor effects. To test the hypothesis that combined therapy with cryoablation and GM-CSF for glioma could synergistically improve specific antiglioma immunity in mice, we tested the validity of this assumption in a murine subcutaneous GL261 glioma model. C57BL/6 mice with subcutaneous GL261 glioma were created and divided into four groups: no treatment, GM-CSF injection, cryoablation treatment, and GM-CSF and cryoablation combined treatment (n=20 in each group). Serial immune indicators were detected at sequential time points during treatment. Compared with the other groups, in the combined treatment group, DCs were more activated and their numbers were markedly upregulated, the secretion of interferon-γ from Th1 cells of mice spleen was increased, and the cytolytic activity of CD8 CTLs exerted a more significant cytotoxic effect on GL261 glioma cells (P<0.05 for all). Furthermore, these changes peaked on the 7th day after treatment, and then gradually reduced, until the 21st day; these changes were higher than those at pretreatment (P<0.05). It is concluded that combined therapy with argon-helium cryoablation and GM-CSF could synergistically enhance the activation of DCs and induce a robust tumor-specific immunologic response in glioma-bearing mice.
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Debnath M, Berk M. Th17 pathway-mediated immunopathogenesis of schizophrenia: mechanisms and implications. Schizophr Bull 2014; 40:1412-21. [PMID: 24711545 PMCID: PMC4193719 DOI: 10.1093/schbul/sbu049] [Citation(s) in RCA: 87] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Schizophrenia is a highly complex and severe neuropsychiatric disorder with an unknown etiopathology. Evidence for a dysregulated immune system in both the risk for and progression of schizophrenia has recently been overwhelming. Importantly, chronic low-grade inflammation both in the periphery and central nervous system has been shown to contribute predominantly to the pathogenesis of schizophrenia in a subset of individuals. Inflammation in the central nervous system is mediated by a range of proinflammatory cytokines, resident immune cells such as microglia, and brain infiltrating peripheral immunocompetent cells, such as T lymphocytes. Recently, Th17 cells, a subset of T helper cells have emerged as crucial players in mucosal defense against infections. It is linked to atopic, inflammatory, and autoimmune disorders. The risk factors/mechanisms leading to low-grade inflammation in schizophrenia are diverse and include infectious agents, stress, trauma, environmental toxins, genetic vulnerability, physical inactivity, obesity, poor diet, and sleep disruption. Herein, we propose that fetal programming of cellular immune components driven by intrauterine adversity can lead to the generation of long-lasting effector/memory Th17 cells. Th17 cells can disrupt the blood-brain barrier, infiltrate the central nervous system, and, along with other cytokines and microglia, lead to neuroprogression through neuroinflammation in schizophrenia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Monojit Debnath
- Department of Human Genetics, National Institute of Mental Health & Neurosciences, Bangalore, Karnataka, India;
| | - Michael Berk
- IMPACT Strategic Research Centre, School of Medicine, Deakin University, Geelong, Victoria, Australia;,Department of Psychiatry, Florey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental Health, Orygen Youth Health Research Centre, University of Melbourne, Parkville, Australia
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Haqqani AS, Stanimirovic DB. Prioritization of therapeutic targets of inflammation using proteomics, bioinformatics, and in silico cell-cell interactomics. Methods Mol Biol 2014; 1061:345-60. [PMID: 23963948 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-62703-589-7_21] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/21/2023]
Abstract
Leukocyte extravasation is a multistep process, involving the movement of leukocytes out of the circulatory system, through vascular endothelium and to the site of tissue damage or infection. Protein-protein interactions play key roles in the extravasation process and have been attractive therapeutic targets for inhibiting inflammation using blocking (or neutralizing) antibodies. These targets include protein-protein interactions between cytokines (or chemokines) and their receptors on leukocytes and between adhesions molecules involving leukocyte-endothelium contacts. A number of therapeutics against these targets are currently used in clinic for treatment of inflammatory disorders, however, they are associated with side-effects partly due to the off-target actions (i.e., nonspecific targets). There is a need for novel targets involved in the leukocyte extravasation process that are specific to leukocyte subsets or to individual inflammatory disorder, and are amenable for drug development (i.e., duggable). In this chapter, we describe a methodology to identify novel "druggable" targets involving protein-protein interactions between activated leukocytes and endothelial cells using a combination of proteomics, bioinformatics and in silico interactomics. The result is a prioritized list of protein-protein interactions in a network consisting of leukocyte-endothelial cell communication and contacts. These prioritized targets can be pursued for the development of therapeutics such as neutralizing antibodies and for their validation through preclinical testing. The method described here provides the workflow to identify and clinically target important cell-cell interactions that are specific/selective for particular inflammatory disorders and to improve currently available therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arsalan S Haqqani
- Human Health Therapeutics Portfolio, National Research Council of Canada, Ottawa, ON, Canada
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Abbott NJ. Blood-brain barrier structure and function and the challenges for CNS drug delivery. J Inherit Metab Dis 2013; 36:437-49. [PMID: 23609350 DOI: 10.1007/s10545-013-9608-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 597] [Impact Index Per Article: 49.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/24/2013] [Revised: 04/02/2013] [Accepted: 04/03/2013] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
The neurons of the central nervous system (CNS) require precise control of their bathing microenvironment for optimal function, and an important element in this control is the blood-brain barrier (BBB). The BBB is formed by the endothelial cells lining the brain microvessels, under the inductive influence of neighbouring cell types within the 'neurovascular unit' (NVU) including astrocytes and pericytes. The endothelium forms the major interface between the blood and the CNS, and by a combination of low passive permeability and presence of specific transport systems, enzymes and receptors regulates molecular and cellular traffic across the barrier layer. A number of methods and models are available for examining BBB permeation in vivo and in vitro, and can give valuable information on the mechanisms by which therapeutic agents and constructs permeate, ways to optimize permeation, and implications for drug discovery, delivery and toxicity. For treating lysosomal storage diseases (LSDs), models can be included that mimic aspects of the disease, including genetically-modified animals, and in vitro models can be used to examine the effects of cells of the NVU on the BBB under pathological conditions. For testing CNS drug delivery, several in vitro models now provide reliable prediction of penetration of drugs including large molecules and artificial constructs with promising potential in treating LSDs. For many of these diseases it is still not clear how best to deliver appropriate drugs to the CNS, and a concerted approach using a variety of models and methods can give critical insights and indicate practical solutions.
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Affiliation(s)
- N Joan Abbott
- BBB Group, Institute of Pharmaceutical Science, King's College London, London, UK.
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Swardfager W, Winer DA, Herrmann N, Winer S, Lanctôt KL. Interleukin-17 in post-stroke neurodegeneration. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2013; 37:436-47. [PMID: 23370232 DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2013.01.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/10/2012] [Revised: 11/10/2012] [Accepted: 01/20/2013] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Stroke is a leading cause of physical disability with neurodegenerative sequelae such as dementia and depression causing significant excess morbidity. Stroke severity can be exacerbated by apoptotic cell death in ischemic tissue, of which inflammatory activity is a key determinant. Studies have identified harmful and beneficial sets of T lymphocytes that infiltrate the brain post-stroke and their activation signals, suggesting that they might be targeted for therapeutic benefit. Animal models and human studies implicate interleukin(IL)-17 and its congeners (e.g. IL-23, IL-21) as mediators of tissue damage in the delayed phase of the inflammatory cascade and the involvement of T lymphocytes in propagating IL-17 release. In this review, we highlight the current understanding of IL-17 secreting cells, including sets of CD4(+) αβ and CD4(-) γδ T lymphocytes, as potentially important mediators of brain pathology post-stroke. Interactions between the IL-17 axis and innate pathways, positive feedback mechanisms that prolong or amplify IL-17, and IL-17 regulatory pathways may offer intervention targets to enhance recovery, prevent long-term decline, and improve quality of life.
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Affiliation(s)
- Walter Swardfager
- Neuropsychopharmacology Research Group, Sunnybrook Health Sciences Centre, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario M4N 3M5, Canada
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Haqqani AS, Delaney CE, Tremblay TL, Sodja C, Sandhu JK, Stanimirovic DB. Method for isolation and molecular characterization of extracellular microvesicles released from brain endothelial cells. Fluids Barriers CNS 2013; 10:4. [PMID: 23305214 PMCID: PMC3560214 DOI: 10.1186/2045-8118-10-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 146] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2012] [Accepted: 12/18/2012] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Background In addition to possessing intracellular vesicles, eukaryotic cells also produce extracellular microvesicles, ranging from 50 to 1000 nm in diameter that are released or shed into the microenvironment under physiological and pathological conditions. These membranous extracellular organelles include both exosomes (originating from internal vesicles of endosomes) and ectosomes (originating from direct budding/shedding of plasma membranes). Extracellular microvesicles contain cell-specific collections of proteins, glycoproteins, lipids, nucleic acids and other molecules. These vesicles play important roles in intercellular communication by acting as carrier for essential cell-specific information to target cells. Endothelial cells in the brain form the blood–brain barrier, a specialized interface between the blood and the brain that tightly controls traffic of nutrients and macromolecules between two compartments and interacts closely with other cells forming the neurovascular unit. Therefore, brain endothelial cell extracellular microvesicles could potentially play important roles in ‘externalizing’ brain-specific biomarkers into the blood stream during pathological conditions, in transcytosis of blood-borne molecules into the brain, and in cell-cell communication within the neurovascular unit. Methods To study cell-specific molecular make-up and functions of brain endothelial cell exosomes, methods for isolation of extracellular microvesicles using mass spectrometry-compatible protocols and the characterization of their signature profiles using mass spectrometry -based proteomics were developed. Results A total of 1179 proteins were identified in the isolated extracellular microvesicles from brain endothelial cells. The microvesicles were validated by identification of almost 60 known markers, including Alix, TSG101 and the tetraspanin proteins CD81 and CD9. The surface proteins on isolated microvesicles could potentially interact with both primary astrocytes and cortical neurons, as cell-cell communication vesicles. Finally, brain endothelial cell extracellular microvesicles were shown to contain several receptors previously shown to carry macromolecules across the blood brain barrier, including transferrin receptor, insulin receptor, LRPs, LDL and TMEM30A. Conclusions The methods described here permit identification of the molecular signatures for brain endothelial cell-specific extracellular microvesicles under various biological conditions. In addition to being a potential source of useful biomarkers, these vesicles contain potentially novel receptors known for delivering molecules across the blood–brain barrier.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arsalan S Haqqani
- National Research Council of Canada, Human Health Therapeutics Portfolio, 100 Sussex Drive, Ottawa, ON, K1A 0R6, Canada.
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Nagel S, Hadley G, Pfleger K, Grond-Ginsbach C, Buchan AM, Wagner S, Papadakis M. Suppression of the inflammatory response by diphenyleneiodonium after transient focal cerebral ischemia. J Neurochem 2012; 123 Suppl 2:98-107. [PMID: 23050647 DOI: 10.1111/j.1471-4159.2012.07948.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Diphenyleneiodonium (DPI), a NADPH oxidase inhibitor, reduces production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and confers neuroprotection to focal cerebral ischemia. Our objective was to investigate whether the neuroprotective action of DPI extends to averting the immune response. DPI-induced gene changes were analyzed by microarray analysis from rat brains subjected to 90 min of middle cerebral artery occlusion, treated with NaCl (ischemia), dimethylsulfoxide (DMSO), or DMSO and DPI (DPI), and reperfused for 48 h. The genomic expression profile was compared between groups using ingenuity pathway analysis at the pathway and network level. DPI selectively up-regulated 23 genes and down-regulated 75 genes more than twofold compared with both DMSO and ischemia. It significantly suppressed inducible nitric oxide synthase signaling and increased the expression of methionine adenosyltransferasesynthetase 2A and adenosylmethionine decarboxylase 1 genes, which are involved in increasing the production of the antioxidant glutathione. The most significantly affected gene network comprised genes implicated in the inflammatory response with an expression change indicating an overall suppression. Both integrin- and interleukin-17A-signaling pathways were also significantly associated and suppressed. In conclusion, the neuroprotective effects of DPI are mediated not only by suppressing ischemia-triggered oxidative stress but also by limiting leukocyte migration and infiltration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Simon Nagel
- Department of Neurology, University of Heidelberg, Heidelberg, Germany
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