Cloning, expression, purification, and characterization of glutaredoxin from Antarctic sea-ice bacterium Pseudoalteromonas sp. AN178

Cold-active enzymes from deep marine psychrophiles: harnessing their potential in enhanced food production and sustainability

Exploring the untapped potential of deep-sea microorganisms, particularly their cold-active enzymes, or psychrozymes, offers exciting possibilities for revolutionizing various aspects of the food processing industry. This review focuses on these enzymes, derived from the largely unexplored depths of the deep ocean, where microorganisms have developed unique adaptations to extreme conditions. Psychrozymes, as bioactive molecules, hold significant promise for food industry applications. However, despite their potential, the understanding and industrial utilization of psychrozymes remains limited. This review provides an in-depth analysis of how psychrozymes can: improve processing efficiency, enhance sensory qualities, extend product shelf life, and reduce energy consumption across the food production chain. We explore the cryodefense strategies and cold-adaptation mechanisms that support these enzymes, shedding light on the most extensively studied psychrozymes and assessing their journey from theoretical applications to practical use in food production. The key properties, such as stability, substrate specificity, and catalytic efficiency in cold environments, are also discussed. Although psychrozymes show considerable promise, their large-scale application in the food industry remains largely unexplored. This review emphasizes the need for further research to unlock the full potential of psychrozymes, encouraging their broader integration into the food sector to contribute to more sustainable food production processes.

Cloning, Expression, Characterization, and Antioxidant Protection of Glutaredoxin3 From Psychrophilic Bacterium Psychrobacter sp. ANT206

Glutaredoxins (Grxs) are proteins that catalyze the glutathione (GSH)-dependent reduction of protein disulfides. In this study, a Grx-related gene (264 bp), encoding a Ps-Grx3, was cloned from Psychrobacter sp. ANT206. Sequence analysis indicated the presence of the active site motif CPYC in this protein. Homology modeling showed that Ps-Grx3 had fewer hydrogen bonds and salt bridges, as well as a lower Arg/(Arg + Lys) ratio than its mesophilic homologs, indicative of an improved catalytic ability at low temperatures. Site-directed mutagenesis demonstrated that the Cys13, Pro14, and Cys16 sites were essential for the catalytic activity of Ps-Grx3, while circular dichroism (CD) spectroscopy confirmed that point mutations in these amino acid residues led to the loss or reduction of enzyme activity. Furthermore, analysis of the biochemical properties of Ps-Grx3 showed that the optimum temperature of this enzyme was 25 °C. Importantly, Ps-Grx3 was more sensitive to tBHP and CHP than to H₂O₂, and retained approximately 40% activity even when the H₂O₂ concentration was increased to 1 mm Regarding substrate specificity, Ps-Grx3 had a higher affinity for HED, L-cystine, and DHA than for S-sulfocysteine and BSA. We also investigated the DNA-protective ability of Ps-Grx3 using the pUC19 plasmid, and found that Ps-Grx3 could protect supercoiled DNA from oxidation-induced damage at 15°C for 1.5 h. This study provides new insights into the structure and catalytic activity of a cold-adapted Grx3.

Enzymes from Marine Polar Regions and Their Biotechnological Applications

The microorganisms that evolved at low temperatures express cold-adapted enzymes endowed with unique catalytic properties in comparison to their mesophilic homologues, i.e., higher catalytic efficiency, improved flexibility, and lower thermal stability. Cold environments are therefore an attractive research area for the discovery of enzymes to be used for investigational and industrial applications in which such properties are desirable. In this work, we will review the literature on cold-adapted enzymes specifically focusing on those discovered in the bioprospecting of polar marine environments, so far largely neglected because of their limited accessibility. We will discuss their existing or proposed biotechnological applications within the framework of the more general applications of cold-adapted enzymes.

Discovery, Molecular Mechanisms, and Industrial Applications of Cold-Active Enzymes

Cold-active enzymes constitute an attractive resource for biotechnological applications. Their high catalytic activity at temperatures below 25°C makes them excellent biocatalysts that eliminate the need of heating processes hampering the quality, sustainability, and cost-effectiveness of industrial production. Here we provide a review of the isolation and characterization of novel cold-active enzymes from microorganisms inhabiting different environments, including a revision of the latest techniques that have been used for accomplishing these paramount tasks. We address the progress made in the overexpression and purification of cold-adapted enzymes, the evolutionary and molecular basis of their high activity at low temperatures and the experimental and computational techniques used for their identification, along with protein engineering endeavors based on these observations to improve some of the properties of cold-adapted enzymes to better suit specific applications. We finally focus on examples of the evaluation of their potential use as biocatalysts under conditions that reproduce the challenges imposed by the use of solvents and additives in industrial processes and of the successful use of cold-adapted enzymes in biotechnological and industrial applications.

Marine-derived fungi: diversity of enzymes and biotechnological applications

The ocean is considered to be a great reservoir of biodiversity. Microbial communities in marine environments are ecologically relevant as intermediaries of energy, and play an important role in nutrient regeneration cycles as decomposers of dead and decaying organic matter. In this sense, marine-derived fungi can be considered as a source of enzymes of industrial and/or environmental interest. Fungal strains isolated from different substrates, such as invertebrates, decaying wood, seawater, sediments, and mangrove detritus, have been reported to be producers of hydrolytic and/or oxidative enzymes, with alginate lyase, amylase, cellulase, chitinase, glucosidase, inulinase, keratinase, ligninase, lipase, nuclease, phytase, protease, and xylanase being among the enzymes produced by fungi of marine origin. These enzymes present temperature and pH optima ranging from 35 to 70(∘)C, and 3.0 to 11.0, respectively. High-level production in bioreactors is mainly performed using submerged-state fermentation. Certain marine-derived fungal strains present enzymes with alkaline and cold-activity characteristics, and salinity is considered an important condition in screening and production processes. The adaptability of marine-derived fungi to oceanic conditions can be considered an attractive point in the field of fungal marine biotechnology. In this review, we focus on the advances in discovering enzymes from marine-derived fungi and their biotechnological relevance.