Ganoderma lucidum Polysaccharides Reduce Lipopolysaccharide-Induced Interleukin-1 β Expression in Cultured Smooth Muscle Cells and in Thoracic Aortas in Mice

Potential Anti-Rheumatoid Arthritis Activities and Mechanisms of Ganoderma lucidum Polysaccharides

Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is a chronic and autoimmune disease characterized by inflammation, autoimmune dysfunction, and cartilage and bone destruction. In this review, we summarized the available reports on the protective effects of Ganoderma lucidum polysaccharides (GLP) on RA in terms of anti-inflammatory, immunomodulatory, anti-angiogenic and osteoprotective effects. Firstly, GLP inhibits RA synovial fibroblast (RASF) proliferation and migration, modulates pro- and anti-inflammatory cytokines and reduces synovial inflammation. Secondly, GLP regulates the proliferation and differentiation of antigen-presenting cells such as dendritic cells, inhibits phagocytosis by mononuclear macrophages and nature killer (NK) cells and regulates the ratio of M1, M2 and related inflammatory cytokines. In addition, GLP produced activities in balancing humoral and cellular immunity, such as regulating immunoglobulin production, modulating T and B lymphocyte proliferative responses and cytokine release, exhibiting immunomodulatory effects. Thirdly, GLP inhibits angiogenesis through the direct inhibition of vascular endothelial cell proliferation and induction of cell death and the indirect inhibition of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) production in the cells. Finally, GLP can inhibit the production of matrix metalloproteinases and promote osteoblast formation, exerting protective effects on bone and articular cartilage. It is suggested that GLP may be a promising agent for the treatment of RA.

Puerarin Prevents Acute Liver Injury via Inhibiting Inflammatory Responses and ZEB2 Expression

Puerarin, an isoflavone component extracted from herb radix puerariae, is widely used in China in the treatment of immune diseases and inflammation. Previous studies have demonstrated that puerarin prevented acute lung injury by regulating inflammatory responses. However, the effect of puerarin on acute liver injury (ALI) was unclear. The purpose of this study was to explore the beneficial effects of puerarin when applied to ALI. We found that puerarin inhibited liver injury and inflammatory cell infiltration in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)/D-galactose (D-Gal)-induced acute liver failure and the liver pro-inflammatory cytokines interleukin (IL)-1β, IL-6, and tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α) in liver tissues with ALI and LPS-induced L-02 cells but upregulated the expression level of zinc finger E-box-binding homeobox 2 (ZEB2). Significantly, the results of this study showed that the inhibition of liver pro-inflammatory cytokine (IL-1β, IL-6, and TNF-α) production in LPS-induced L-02 cells was caused by ZEB2 overexpression. However, knocking down ZEB2 promoted LPS-mediated secretion of liver pro-inflammatory cytokines in L-02 cells. Additional experiments showed that puerarin inhibited the activation of the NF-κB signaling pathway by elevating ZEB2 expression in L-02 cells. In summary, puerarin most likely prevented activation of the pro-inflammatory factors and reduced LPS/D-Gal-induced liver injury by enhancing the ZEB2 expression level and, consequently, blocking activation of the NF-κB signaling pathway in the liver.

A Placebo-Controlled, Pseudo-Randomized, Crossover Trial of Botanical Agents for Gulf War Illness: Reishi Mushroom (Ganoderma lucidum), Stinging Nettle (Urtica dioica), and Epimedium (Epimedium sagittatum)

This report is third in a three-part clinical trial series screening potential treatments for Gulf War Illness (GWI). The goal of the project was to rapidly identify agents to prioritize for further efficacy research. We used a placebo-controlled, pseudo-randomized, crossover design to test the effects of reishi mushroom (Ganoderma lucidum), stinging nettle (Uritca dioica), and epimedium (Epimedium sagittatum) in 29 men with GWI. Participants completed 30 days of symptom reports for baseline, then a botanical line consisting of 30 days of placebo, followed by 30 days each of lower-dose and higher-dose botanical. After completing a botanical line, participants were randomized to complete the protocol with another botanical, until they completed three botanical trials. GWI symptom severity, pain, and fatigue were contrasted between the four conditions (baseline, placebo, lower-dose, higher dose) using linear mixed models. GWI symptom severity was unchanged from placebo in the reishi lower-dose condition (p = 0.603), and was higher in the higher-dose condition (p = 0.012). Symptom severity was not decreased from placebo with lower-dose stinging nettle (p = 0.604), but was significantly decreased with higher-dose stinging nettle (p = 0.048). Epimedium showed no significant decreases of GWI symptoms in the lower (p = 0.936) or higher (p = 0.183) dose conditions. Stinging nettle, especially at higher daily dosages, may help reduce the symptoms of GWI. Epimedium does not appear to beneficially affect GWI symptom severity, and reishi may exaggerate symptoms in some GWI sufferers. These results are in a small sample and are preliminary. Further research is required to determine if stinging nettle is indeed helpful for the treatment of GWI, and what dosage is optimal. This trial was registered on ClinicalTrials.gov (NCT02909686).

RNA-seq profiles of chicken type II pneumocyte in response to Escherichia coli infection

Avian pathogenic Escherichia coli (APEC) causes great economic loss to the poultry industry worldwide. Chicken type II pneumocytes (CP II cells) secrete surfactants and modulate lung immunity to decrease the infection of the invading pathogen. Nevertheless, the pathogenesis of CP II cells to APEC infection remains poorly understood. Therefore, we conducted global gene expression profiling of CP II cells after APEC-O78 infection to explore the host-pathogen interaction. The differentially expressed genes of CP II cells to APEC infection were characterized by RNA-seq with EB-seq algorithm. In consequence, the mRNA of 18996 genes was identified, and CP II cells responded to APEC infection with marked changes in the expression of 1390 genes. Among them, there are 803 down-regulated mRNAs and 587 up-regulated mRNAs. The KEGG prediction and Gene Ontology terms analysis revealed that the major enriched pathways were related to NF-κB signaling pathway, apoptosis pathway, tight junction, and cytokine-cytokine receptor interaction and other pathways. We adopted qRT-PCR to verify the validity of the selected gene expression. The fold induction of qPCR was similar to the RNA-seq results. These results provide a better understanding of the pathogenesis of APEC, especially apoptosis pathway involved in APEC infection.

The Possible Role of PD-1 Protein in Ganoderma lucidum-Mediated Immunomodulation and Cancer Treatment

Background:Ganoderma lucidum has been used in Chinese medicine for thousands years to improve health and to promote longevity. One important function of G lucidum is to modulate the immune system. However, the underlying mechanism is not well understood. Programmed cell death protein 1 (PD-1) is a cell surface protein present in certain immune cells (eg, B- and Tcells) and plays an important role in modulating the immune response. The role of PD-1 protein in G lucidum-mediated immunomodulation is unknown. Methods: Cultured human Blymphocytes and extract prepared from G lucidum spores (GLE) were used to determine PD-1 protein in G lucidum-mediated immunomodulation. Both western blotting and immunofluorescence (IF) microscopy assays were used to determine the effect of GLE treatment on PD-1 protein expression. A reverse transcription-based quantitative polymerase chain reaction (real-time PCR) assay was used to determine the effect of GLE on transcription of pdcd-1 gene. Results: Both our western blotting and IF staining results demonstrated great reduction in PD-1 protein and in proportion of PD-1+ cells in these B-lymphocytes. Our real-time PCR results indicated that this PD-1 protein reduction was not caused by a transcriptional inhibition of the gene. In addition, our western blotting study further revealed that the GLE treatment caused an increase in expression of CCL5 chemokine in the cultured B-lymphocytes. Conclusions: PD-1 protein is an important target of G lucidum-mediated immunomodulation. G lucidum and its bioactive compounds can be developed into novel immunomodulators for prevention and treatment of cancer and many other diseases.

Suppression of Th17 Cell Response in the Alleviation of Dextran Sulfate Sodium-Induced Colitis by Ganoderma lucidum Polysaccharides

Background

Ganoderma lucidum polysaccharides (GLP) has anti-inflammatory and immunomodulatory effects. Dysregulated immune responses are involved in the pathogenesis of dextran sulfate sodium (DSS)-induced colitis. The aim of this study was to assess the therapeutic potential of GLP to alleviate DSS-induced colitis.

Methods

The mice were administered with GLP by intragastric gavage daily for two weeks prior to the DSS treatment. Mice were orally administered with 2.5% DSS dissolved in drinking water with GLP or water treatment for 6 days. The mice were killed on day 7 after induction of colitis. Survival rates, body weight loss, colon lengths, histological changes, and disease activity index scores (DAI) were evaluated.

Results

GLP significantly improved survival rates, colon length shortening, body weight loss, histopathological score, and DAI scores in mice with DSS-induced colitis. GLP markedly suppressed the secretions of TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-6, IL-17A, and IL-4 and significantly affected populations of Th17 cells, B cells, NK cells, and NKT cells in the lamina propria lymphocytes.

Conclusions

GLP prevented inflammation, maintained intestinal homeostasis, and regulated the intestinal immunological barrier functions in mice with DSS-induced colitis.

Polysaccharide peptide isolated from grass-cultured Ganoderma lucidum induces anti-proliferative and pro-apoptotic effects in the human U251 glioma cell line

The Ganoderma lucidum (G. lucidum) mushroom is one of the most extensively studied functional foods, known for its numerous health benefits, including the inhibition of tumor cell growth. The present study assessed the anti-proliferative and pro-apoptotic activity of a novel G. lucidum polysaccharide peptide (GL-PP) in human glioma U251 cells, which was purified from grass-cultured G. lucidum. GL-PP is a glycopeptide with an average molecular weight of 42,635 Da and a polysaccharide-to-peptide ratio of 88.70:11.30. The polysaccharides were composed of l-arabinose, d-mannose and d-glucose at a molar ratio of 1.329:0.372:2.953 and a total of 17 amino acids were detected. The results of the current study demonstrated that GL-PP significantly inhibited U251 cellular proliferation. The proportion of G₀/G₁ phase cells and sub-G₁ phase cells significantly increased as the concentration of GL-PP increased, as did the activity of caspase-3. These results indicate that GL-PP directly inhibited human glioma U251 proliferation by inducing cell cycle arrest and promoting apoptosis.

Berberine attenuates CCN2-induced IL-1β expression and prevents cartilage degradation in a rat model of osteoarthritis

Connective tissue growth factor (CTGF; also known as CCN2) is an inflammatory mediator that is abundantly expressed in osteoarthritis (OA). Interleukin-1β (IL-1β) plays a pivotal role in OA pathogenesis. Berberine exhibits an anti-inflammatory effect, but the mechanisms by which it modulates CCN2-induced IL-1β expression in OA synovial fibroblasts (OASFs) remain unknown. We showed that CCN2-induced IL-1β expression is mediated by the activation of αvβ3/αvβ5 integrin-dependent reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation, and subsequent activation of apoptosis signal-regulating kinase 1 (ASK1), p38/JNK, and nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) signaling pathways. This IL-1β expression in OASFs is attenuated by N-acetylcysteine (NAC), inhibitors of ASK1, p38, or JNK, or treatment with berberine. Furthermore, berberine also reverses cartilage damage in an experimental model of collagenase-induced OA (CIOA). We observed that CCN2 increased IL-1β expression via αvβ3/αvβ5 integrins, ROS, and ASK1, p38/JNK, and NF-κB signaling pathways. Berberine was found to inhibit these signaling components in OASFs in vitro and prevent cartilage degradation in vivo. We suggest a novel therapeutic strategy of using berberine for managing OA.

Triterpenoids and Polysaccharide Fractions of Ganoderma tsugae Exert Different Effects on Antiallergic Activities

This study was to investigate antiallergic effects of triterpenoids (Gt-TRE) and polysaccharide (Gt-PS) extracts from Ganoderma tsugae, using mast cell line RBL-2H3, T cell line EL4, primary T cells, and transfected RAW264.7 macrophage cells. The results showed that histamine secreted from activated RBL-2H3 mast cells was significantly suppressed by Gt-TRE but not Gt-PS. Interleukin- (IL-) 4 secreted from activated EL4 cells was significantly suppressed by Gt-TRE but not Gt-PS. Further primary CD4⁺ T cells cultures also confirmed that Gt-TRE (5 ~ 50 µg/mL) significantly suppressed Th2 cytokines IL-4 and IL-5 secretions but had no effect on Th1 cytokines IL-2 and interferon (IFN)-γ. Gt-PS did not affect IL-4 and IL-5 secretions until higher doses (400, 500 µg/mL) and significantly suppressed IFNγ secretions but enhanced IL-2 at these high doses. The reporter gene assay indicated that Gt-TRE inhibited but Gt-PS enhanced the transcriptional activity of NF-κB in activated transfected RAW264.7 cells and transfected EL4 cells. IL-4 secreted by this transfected EL-4 cells was also significantly decreased by Gt-TRE but not by Gt-PS, suggesting that these two fractions may exert different effects on NF-κB related cytokines expression. These data suggested that triterpenoids fraction of Ganoderma tsugae might be the main constituents to alleviate allergic asthma.

Epigallocatechin gallate attenuates proliferation and oxidative stress in human vascular smooth muscle cells induced by interleukin-1β via heme oxygenase-1

Proliferation of vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs) triggered by inflammatory stimuli and oxidative stress contributes importantly to atherogenesis. The association of green tea consumption with cardiovascular protection has been well documented in epidemiological observations, however, the underlying mechanisms remain unclear. This study aimed to elucidate the effects of the most active green tea catechin derivative, (−)-epigallocatechin-3-gallate (EGCG), in human aortic smooth muscle cells (HASMCs), focusing particularly on the role of a potent anti-inflammatory and antioxidative enzyme heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1). We found that pretreatment of EGCG dose- and time-dependently induced HO-1 protein levels in HASMCs. EGCG inhibited interleukin- (IL-)1β-induced HASMC proliferation and oxidative stress in a dose-dependent manner. The HO-1 inducer CoPPIX decreased IL-1β-induced cell proliferation, whereas the HO-1 enzyme inhibitor ZnPPIX significantly reversed EGCG-caused growth inhibition in IL-1β-treated HASMCs. At the molecular level, EGCG treatment significantly activated nuclear factor erythroid-2-related factor (Nrf2) transcription activities. These results suggest that EGCG might serve as a complementary and alternative medicine in the treatment of these pathologies by inducing HO-1 expression and subsequently decreasing VSMC proliferation.