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Peyton SR, Platt MO, Cukierman E. Challenges and Opportunities Modeling the Dynamic Tumor Matrisome. BME FRONTIERS 2023; 4:0006. [PMID: 37849664 PMCID: PMC10521682 DOI: 10.34133/bmef.0006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2022] [Accepted: 11/28/2022] [Indexed: 10/19/2023] Open
Abstract
We need novel strategies to target the complexity of cancer and, particularly, of metastatic disease. As an example of this complexity, certain tissues are particularly hospitable environments for metastases, whereas others do not contain fertile microenvironments to support cancer cell growth. Continuing evidence that the extracellular matrix (ECM) of tissues is one of a host of factors necessary to support cancer cell growth at both primary and secondary tissue sites is emerging. Research on cancer metastasis has largely been focused on the molecular adaptations of tumor cells in various cytokine and growth factor environments on 2-dimensional tissue culture polystyrene plates. Intravital imaging, conversely, has transformed our ability to watch, in real time, tumor cell invasion, intravasation, extravasation, and growth. Because the interstitial ECM that supports all cells in the tumor microenvironment changes over time scales outside the possible window of typical intravital imaging, bioengineers are continuously developing both simple and sophisticated in vitro controlled environments to study tumor (and other) cell interactions with this matrix. In this perspective, we focus on the cellular unit responsible for upholding the pathologic homeostasis of tumor-bearing organs, cancer-associated fibroblasts (CAFs), and their self-generated ECM. The latter, together with tumoral and other cell secreted factors, constitute the "tumor matrisome". We share the challenges and opportunities for modeling this dynamic CAF/ECM unit, the tools and techniques available, and how the tumor matrisome is remodeled (e.g., via ECM proteases). We posit that increasing information on tumor matrisome dynamics may lead the field to alternative strategies for personalized medicine outside genomics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shelly R. Peyton
- Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Massachusetts Amherst, Amherst, MA, USA
| | - Manu O. Platt
- Coulter Department of Biomedical Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology and Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Edna Cukierman
- Cancer Signaling & Microenvironment Program, Marvin and Concetta Greenberg Pancreatic Cancer Institute, Fox Chase Cancer Center, Temple Health, Philadelphia, PA, USA
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Solberg R, Lunde NN, Forbord KM, Okla M, Kassem M, Jafari A. The Mammalian Cysteine Protease Legumain in Health and Disease. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:ijms232415983. [PMID: 36555634 PMCID: PMC9788469 DOI: 10.3390/ijms232415983] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/28/2022] [Revised: 12/05/2022] [Accepted: 12/10/2022] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
The cysteine protease legumain (also known as asparaginyl endopeptidase or δ-secretase) is the only known mammalian asparaginyl endopeptidase and is primarily localized to the endolysosomal system, although it is also found extracellularly as a secreted protein. Legumain is involved in the regulation of diverse biological processes and tissue homeostasis, and in the pathogenesis of various malignant and nonmalignant diseases. In addition to its proteolytic activity that leads to the degradation or activation of different substrates, legumain has also been shown to have a nonproteolytic ligase function. This review summarizes the current knowledge about legumain functions in health and disease, including kidney homeostasis, hematopoietic homeostasis, bone remodeling, cardiovascular and cerebrovascular diseases, fibrosis, aging and senescence, neurodegenerative diseases and cancer. In addition, this review addresses the effects of some marketed drugs on legumain. Expanding our knowledge on legumain will delineate the importance of this enzyme in regulating physiological processes and disease conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rigmor Solberg
- Section for Pharmacology and Pharmaceutical Biosciences, Department of Pharmacy, University of Oslo, N-0316 Oslo, Norway
- Correspondence: (R.S.); (A.J.); Tel.: +47-22-857-514 (R.S.); +45-35-337-423 (A.J.)
| | - Ngoc Nguyen Lunde
- Section for Pharmacology and Pharmaceutical Biosciences, Department of Pharmacy, University of Oslo, N-0316 Oslo, Norway
| | - Karl Martin Forbord
- Section for Pharmacology and Pharmaceutical Biosciences, Department of Pharmacy, University of Oslo, N-0316 Oslo, Norway
- Department of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Odense University Hospital, University of Southern Denmark, DK-5000 Odense, Denmark
| | - Meshail Okla
- Department of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Odense University Hospital, University of Southern Denmark, DK-5000 Odense, Denmark
- Department of Community Health Sciences, College of Applied Medical Sciences, King Saud University, Riyadh 12372, Saudi Arabia
| | - Moustapha Kassem
- Department of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Odense University Hospital, University of Southern Denmark, DK-5000 Odense, Denmark
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, University of Copenhagen, DK-2200 Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Abbas Jafari
- Department of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Odense University Hospital, University of Southern Denmark, DK-5000 Odense, Denmark
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, University of Copenhagen, DK-2200 Copenhagen, Denmark
- Correspondence: (R.S.); (A.J.); Tel.: +47-22-857-514 (R.S.); +45-35-337-423 (A.J.)
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3
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Guo N, Minas G, Synowsky SA, Dunne MR, Ahmed H, McShane R, Bhardwaj A, Donlon NE, Lorton C, O'Sullivan J, Reynolds JV, Caie PD, Shirran SL, Lynch AG, Stewart AJ, Arya S. Identification of plasma proteins associated with oesophageal cancer chemotherapeutic treatment outcomes using SWATH-MS. J Proteomics 2022; 266:104684. [PMID: 35842220 DOI: 10.1016/j.jprot.2022.104684] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2022] [Revised: 07/01/2022] [Accepted: 07/08/2022] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
Abstract
Oesophageal adenocarcinoma (OAC) is an aggressive cancer with a five-year survival of <15%. Current chemotherapeutic strategies only benefit a minority (20-30%) of patients and there are no methods available to differentiate between responders and non-responders. We performed quantitative proteomics using Sequential Window Acquisition of all THeoretical fragment-ion spectra-Mass Spectrometry (SWATH-MS) on albumin/IgG-depleted and non-depleted plasma samples from 23 patients with locally advanced OAC prior to treatment. Individuals were grouped based on tumour regression (TRG) score (TRG1/2/3 vs TRG4/5) after chemotherapy, and differentially abundant proteins were compared. Protein depletion of highly abundant proteins led to the identification of around twice as many proteins. SWATH-MS revealed significant quantitative differences in the abundance of several proteins between the two groups. These included complement c1q subunit proteins, C1QA, C1QB and C1QC, which were of higher abundance in the low TRG group. Of those that were found to be of higher abundance in the high TRG group, glutathione S-transferase pi (GSTP1) exhibited the lowest p-value and highest classification accuracy and Cohen's kappa value. Concentrations of these proteins were further examined using ELISA-based assays. This study provides quantitative information relating to differences in the plasma proteome that underpin response to chemotherapeutic treatment in oesophageal cancers. SIGNIFICANCE: Oesophageal cancers, including oesophageal adenocarcinoma (OAC) and oesophageal gastric junction cancer (OGJ), are one of the leading causes of cancer mortality worldwide. Curative therapy consists of surgery, either alone or in combination with adjuvant or neoadjuvant chemotherapy or radiation, or combination chemoradiotherapy regimens. There are currently no clinico-pathological means of predicting which patients will benefit from chemotherapeutic treatments. There is therefore an urgent need to improve oesophageal cancer disease management and treatment strategies. This work compared proteomic differences in OAC patients who responded well to chemotherapy as compared to those who did not, using quantitative proteomics prior to treatment commencement. SWATH-MS analysis of plasma (with and without albumin/IgG-depletion) from OAC patients prior to chemotherapy was performed. This approach was adopted to determine whether depletion offered a significant improvement in peptide coverage. Resultant datasets demonstrated that depletion increased peptide coverage significantly. Additionally, there was good quantitative agreement between commonly observed peptides. Data analysis was performed by adopting both univariate as well as multivariate analysis strategies. Differentially abundant proteins were identified between treatment response groups based on tumour regression grade. Such proteins included complement C1q sub-components and GSTP1. This study provides a platform for further work, utilising larger sample sets across different treatment regimens for oesophageal cancer, that will aid the development of 'treatment response prediction assays' for stratification of OAC patients prior to chemotherapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Naici Guo
- School of Mathematics and Statistics, University of St Andrews, St Andrews KY16 9SS, United Kingdom
| | - Giorgos Minas
- School of Mathematics and Statistics, University of St Andrews, St Andrews KY16 9SS, United Kingdom
| | - Silvia A Synowsky
- Biomedical Sciences Research Complex, University of St Andrews, St Andrews KY16 9ST, United Kingdom
| | - Margaret R Dunne
- Department of Surgery, Trinity Translational Medicine Institute, Trinity College Dublin, St James's Hospital, Dublin D08 W9RT, Ireland; Trinity St James's Cancer Institute, St James's Hospital, Dublin D08 W9RT, Ireland; Department of Applied Science, Technological University Dublin, Tallaght, Dublin 24 D24 FKT9, Ireland
| | - Hasnain Ahmed
- Biomedical Sciences Research Complex, University of St Andrews, St Andrews KY16 9ST, United Kingdom; School of Medicine, University of St Andrews, St Andrews KY16 9TF, United Kingdom
| | - Rhiannon McShane
- Biomedical Sciences Research Complex, University of St Andrews, St Andrews KY16 9ST, United Kingdom; School of Medicine, University of St Andrews, St Andrews KY16 9TF, United Kingdom
| | - Anshul Bhardwaj
- Department of Surgery, Trinity Translational Medicine Institute, Trinity College Dublin, St James's Hospital, Dublin D08 W9RT, Ireland
| | - Noel E Donlon
- Department of Surgery, Trinity Translational Medicine Institute, Trinity College Dublin, St James's Hospital, Dublin D08 W9RT, Ireland; Trinity St James's Cancer Institute, St James's Hospital, Dublin D08 W9RT, Ireland
| | - Cliona Lorton
- Department of Surgery, Trinity Translational Medicine Institute, Trinity College Dublin, St James's Hospital, Dublin D08 W9RT, Ireland; Trinity St James's Cancer Institute, St James's Hospital, Dublin D08 W9RT, Ireland; Our Lady's Hospice & Care Services, Harold's Cross, Dublin 6w, Ireland
| | - Jacintha O'Sullivan
- Department of Surgery, Trinity Translational Medicine Institute, Trinity College Dublin, St James's Hospital, Dublin D08 W9RT, Ireland; Trinity St James's Cancer Institute, St James's Hospital, Dublin D08 W9RT, Ireland
| | - John V Reynolds
- Department of Surgery, Trinity Translational Medicine Institute, Trinity College Dublin, St James's Hospital, Dublin D08 W9RT, Ireland; Trinity St James's Cancer Institute, St James's Hospital, Dublin D08 W9RT, Ireland
| | - Peter D Caie
- School of Medicine, University of St Andrews, St Andrews KY16 9TF, United Kingdom
| | - Sally L Shirran
- Biomedical Sciences Research Complex, University of St Andrews, St Andrews KY16 9ST, United Kingdom
| | - Andy G Lynch
- School of Mathematics and Statistics, University of St Andrews, St Andrews KY16 9SS, United Kingdom; School of Medicine, University of St Andrews, St Andrews KY16 9TF, United Kingdom
| | - Alan J Stewart
- Biomedical Sciences Research Complex, University of St Andrews, St Andrews KY16 9ST, United Kingdom; School of Medicine, University of St Andrews, St Andrews KY16 9TF, United Kingdom.
| | - Swati Arya
- Biomedical Sciences Research Complex, University of St Andrews, St Andrews KY16 9ST, United Kingdom; School of Medicine, University of St Andrews, St Andrews KY16 9TF, United Kingdom.
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Xu D, Ding S, Cao M, Yu X, Wang H, Qiu D, Xu Z, Bi X, Mu Z, Li K. A Pan-Cancer Analysis of Cystatin E/M Reveals Its Dual Functional Effects and Positive Regulation of Epithelial Cell in Human Tumors. Front Genet 2021; 12:733211. [PMID: 34603393 PMCID: PMC8484784 DOI: 10.3389/fgene.2021.733211] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2021] [Accepted: 08/17/2021] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Cystatin E/M (CST6), a representative cysteine protease inhibitor, plays both tumor-promoting and tumor-suppressing functions and is pursued as an epigenetically therapeutic target in special cancer types. However, a comprehensive and systematic analysis for CST6 in pan-cancer level is still lacking. In the present study, we explored the expression pattern of CST6 in multiple cancer types across ∼10,000 samples from TCGA (The Cancer Genome Atlas) and ∼8,000 samples from MMDs (Merged Microarray-acquired Datasets). We found that the dynamic expression alteration of CST6 was consistent with dual function in different types of cancer. In addition, we observed that the expression of CST6 was globally regulated by the DNA methylation in its promoter region. CST6 expression was positively correlated with the epithelial cell infiltration involved in epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT) and proliferation. The relationship between CST6 and tumor microenvironment was also explored. In particular, we found that CST6 serves a protective function in the process of melanoma metastasis. Finally, the clinical association analysis further revealed the dual function of CST6 in cancer, and a combination of the epithelial cell infiltration and CST6 expression could predict the prognosis for SKCM patients. In summary, this first CST6 pan-cancer study improves the understanding of the dual functional effects on CST6 in different types of human cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dahua Xu
- Key Laboratory of Tropical Translational Medicine of Ministry of Education, College of Biomedical Information and Engineering and Cancer Institute of the First Affiliated Hospital, Hainan Medical University, Haikou, China
| | - Shun Ding
- Department of Otolaryngology, Head and Neck Surgery, The First Affiliated Hospital, Hainan Medical University, Haikou, China
| | - Meng Cao
- College of Bioinformatics Science and Technology, Harbin Medical University, Harbin, China
| | - Xiaorong Yu
- College of Bioinformatics Science and Technology, Harbin Medical University, Harbin, China
| | - Hong Wang
- Key Laboratory of Tropical Translational Medicine of Ministry of Education, College of Biomedical Information and Engineering and Cancer Institute of the First Affiliated Hospital, Hainan Medical University, Haikou, China
| | - Dongqin Qiu
- Department of Otolaryngology, Head and Neck Surgery, The First Affiliated Hospital, Hainan Medical University, Haikou, China
| | - Zhengyang Xu
- Department of Otolaryngology, Head and Neck Surgery, The First Affiliated Hospital, Hainan Medical University, Haikou, China
| | - Xiaoman Bi
- Key Laboratory of Tropical Translational Medicine of Ministry of Education, College of Biomedical Information and Engineering and Cancer Institute of the First Affiliated Hospital, Hainan Medical University, Haikou, China
| | - Zhonglin Mu
- Department of Otolaryngology, Head and Neck Surgery, The First Affiliated Hospital, Hainan Medical University, Haikou, China
| | - Kongning Li
- Key Laboratory of Tropical Translational Medicine of Ministry of Education, College of Biomedical Information and Engineering and Cancer Institute of the First Affiliated Hospital, Hainan Medical University, Haikou, China.,College of Bioinformatics Science and Technology, Harbin Medical University, Harbin, China
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5
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Cystatin M/E (Cystatin 6): A Janus-Faced Cysteine Protease Inhibitor with Both Tumor-Suppressing and Tumor-Promoting Functions. Cancers (Basel) 2021; 13:cancers13081877. [PMID: 33919854 PMCID: PMC8070812 DOI: 10.3390/cancers13081877] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/17/2021] [Revised: 04/12/2021] [Accepted: 04/12/2021] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Alongside its contribution in maintaining skin homeostasis and its probable involvement in fetal and placental development, cystatin M/E (also known as cystatin 6) was first described as a tumor suppressor of breast cancer. This review aims to provide an update on cystatin M/E with particular attention paid to its role during tumorigenesis. Cystatin M/E, which is related to type 2 cystatins, displays the unique property of being a dual tight-binding inhibitor of both legumain (also known as asparagine endopeptidase) and cysteine cathepsins L, V and B, while its expression level is epigenetically regulated via the methylation of the CST6 promoter region. The tumor-suppressing role of cystatin M/E was further reported in melanoma, cervical, brain, prostate, gastric and renal cancers, and cystatin M/E was proposed as a biomarker of prognostic significance. Contrariwise, cystatin M/E could have an antagonistic function, acting as a tumor promoter (e.g., oral, pancreatic cancer, thyroid and hepatocellular carcinoma). Taking into account these apparently divergent functions, there is an urgent need to decipher the molecular and cellular regulatory mechanisms of the expression and activity of cystatin M/E associated with the safeguarding homeostasis of the proteolytic balance as well as its imbalance in cancer.
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6
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Wang S, Wang C, Liu O, Hu Y, Li X, Lin B. Prognostic value of immune-related cells and genes in the tumor microenvironment of ovarian cancer, especially CST4. Life Sci 2021; 277:119461. [PMID: 33811900 DOI: 10.1016/j.lfs.2021.119461] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/13/2020] [Revised: 03/20/2021] [Accepted: 03/27/2021] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
Ovarian cancer (OC) is the most common gynecological malignant tumor with the highest mortality rate. However, identification of effective immune therapeutic targets and biomarkers are beset by many challenges. CIBERSORT was used to calculate the abundance of 22 immune cell types in 379 OC samples, and indicated that three immune cell types were associated with poor prognoses. Further analysis revealed that 17 hub genes were associated with these three cell types. We screened differentially expressed immune-related prognostic gene associated with clinicopathological factors, which was CST4. We used clinical specimens to detect the expression of CST4, and determined that CST4 was both highly expressed in OC patients and associated with poor prognoses. Our findings indicated that infiltration of immune cells affected the survival of patients with OC, provided therapeutic targets represented by CST4, deepened our understanding of the immune microenvironment of OC, and enhanced the theoretical basis of immunotherapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shuang Wang
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, Shengjing Hospital Affiliated to China Medical University, Liaoning, China; Key Laboratory of Maternal-Fetal Medicine of Liaoning Province, Key Laboratory of Obstetrics and Gynecology of Higher Education of Liaoning Province, Liaoning, China
| | - Caixia Wang
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, West China Second University Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China
| | - Ouxuan Liu
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, Shengjing Hospital Affiliated to China Medical University, Liaoning, China; Key Laboratory of Maternal-Fetal Medicine of Liaoning Province, Key Laboratory of Obstetrics and Gynecology of Higher Education of Liaoning Province, Liaoning, China
| | - Yuexin Hu
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, Shengjing Hospital Affiliated to China Medical University, Liaoning, China; Key Laboratory of Maternal-Fetal Medicine of Liaoning Province, Key Laboratory of Obstetrics and Gynecology of Higher Education of Liaoning Province, Liaoning, China
| | - Xiao Li
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, Shengjing Hospital Affiliated to China Medical University, Liaoning, China; Key Laboratory of Maternal-Fetal Medicine of Liaoning Province, Key Laboratory of Obstetrics and Gynecology of Higher Education of Liaoning Province, Liaoning, China
| | - Bei Lin
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, Shengjing Hospital Affiliated to China Medical University, Liaoning, China; Key Laboratory of Maternal-Fetal Medicine of Liaoning Province, Key Laboratory of Obstetrics and Gynecology of Higher Education of Liaoning Province, Liaoning, China.
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7
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Bi J, Yang S, Li L, Dai Q, Borcherding N, Wagner BA, Buettner GR, Spitz DR, Leslie KK, Zhang J, Meng X. Metadherin enhances vulnerability of cancer cells to ferroptosis. Cell Death Dis 2019; 10:682. [PMID: 31527591 PMCID: PMC6746770 DOI: 10.1038/s41419-019-1897-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/02/2019] [Revised: 07/29/2019] [Accepted: 08/20/2019] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Ferroptosis is an iron-dependent, non-apoptotic form of regulated cell death driven by lipid hydroperoxides within biological membranes. Although therapy-resistant mesenchymal-high cancers are particularly vulnerable to ferroptosis inducers, especially phospholipid glutathione peroxidase 4 (GPx4) inhibitors, the underlying mechanism is yet to be deciphered. As such, the full application of GPx4 inhibitors in cancer therapy remains challenging. Here we demonstrate that metadherin (MTDH) confers a therapy-resistant mesenchymal-high cell state and enhanced sensitivity to inducers of ferroptosis. Mechanistically, MTDH inhibited GPx4, as well as the solute carrier family 3 member 2 (SLC3A2, a system Xc- heterodimerization partner), at both the messenger RNA and protein levels. Our metabolomic studies demonstrated that MTDH reduced intracellular cysteine, but increased glutamate levels, ultimately decreasing levels of glutathione and setting the stage for increased vulnerability to ferroptosis. Finally, we observed an enhanced antitumor effect when we combined various ferroptosis inducers both in vitro and in vivo; the level of MTDH correlated with the ferroptotic effect. We have demonstrated for the first time that MTDH enhances the vulnerability of cancer cells to ferroptosis and may serve as a therapeutic biomarker for future ferroptosis-centered cancer therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jianling Bi
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Iowa City, IA, 52242, USA
| | - Shujie Yang
- Department of Pathology, Iowa City, IA, 52242, USA.,Holden Comprehensive Cancer Center, Iowa City, IA, 52242, USA
| | - Long Li
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Iowa City, IA, 52242, USA
| | - Qun Dai
- Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Hematology, Oncology and Blood & Marrow Transplantation, Iowa City, IA, 52242, USA.,Division of Medical Oncology, Department of Internal Medicine, University of Kansas Cancer Center, University of Kansas Medical Center, 2330 Shawnee Mission Pkwy #210, Westwood, KS, 66205, USA
| | - Nicholas Borcherding
- Holden Comprehensive Cancer Center, Iowa City, IA, 52242, USA.,Medical Science Training Program (MSTP), Iowa City, IA, 52242, USA
| | - Brett A Wagner
- Free Radical Radiation Biology, and Division of the Department of Radiation Oncology, University of Iowa Carver College of Medicine, Iowa City, IA, 52242, USA
| | - Garry R Buettner
- Holden Comprehensive Cancer Center, Iowa City, IA, 52242, USA.,Free Radical Radiation Biology, and Division of the Department of Radiation Oncology, University of Iowa Carver College of Medicine, Iowa City, IA, 52242, USA
| | - Douglas R Spitz
- Holden Comprehensive Cancer Center, Iowa City, IA, 52242, USA.,Free Radical Radiation Biology, and Division of the Department of Radiation Oncology, University of Iowa Carver College of Medicine, Iowa City, IA, 52242, USA
| | - Kimberly K Leslie
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Iowa City, IA, 52242, USA.,Holden Comprehensive Cancer Center, Iowa City, IA, 52242, USA
| | - Jun Zhang
- Holden Comprehensive Cancer Center, Iowa City, IA, 52242, USA. .,Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Hematology, Oncology and Blood & Marrow Transplantation, Iowa City, IA, 52242, USA. .,Division of Medical Oncology, Department of Internal Medicine, University of Kansas Cancer Center, University of Kansas Medical Center, 2330 Shawnee Mission Pkwy #210, Westwood, KS, 66205, USA. .,Department of Cancer Biology, University of Kansas Cancer Center, University of Kansas Medical Center, 3005B Wahl Hall East, 3901 Rainbow Blvd, Kansas City, KS, 66160, USA.
| | - Xiangbing Meng
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Iowa City, IA, 52242, USA. .,Department of Pathology, Iowa City, IA, 52242, USA. .,Holden Comprehensive Cancer Center, Iowa City, IA, 52242, USA.
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Eddie SL, Gregson A, Graham E, Burton S, Harrison T, Burden R, Scott CJ, Mullan PB, Williams R. Identification and SAR exploration of a novel series of Legumain inhibitors. Bioorg Med Chem Lett 2019; 29:1546-1548. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bmcl.2019.03.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/07/2019] [Revised: 02/25/2019] [Accepted: 03/15/2019] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
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9
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Cystatins in cancer progression: More than just cathepsin inhibitors. Biochimie 2019; 166:233-250. [PMID: 31071357 DOI: 10.1016/j.biochi.2019.05.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/05/2019] [Accepted: 05/03/2019] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Cystatins are endogenous and reversible inhibitors of cysteine peptidases that are important players in cancer progression. Besides their primary role as regulators of cysteine peptidase activity, cystatins are involved in cancer development and progression through proteolysis-independent mechanisms. Mechanistic studies of cystatin function revealed that they affect all stages of cancer progression including tumor growth, apoptosis, invasion, metastasis and angiogenesis. Recently, the involvement of cystatins in the antitumor immune responses was reported. In this review, we discuss molecular mechanisms and clinical aspects of cystatins in cancer. Altered expression of cystatins in cancer resulting in harmful excessive cysteine peptidase activity has been a subject of several studies in order to find correlations with clinical outcome and therapy response. However, involvement in anti-tumor immune response and signaling cascades leading to cancer progression designates cystatins as possible targets for development of new anti-tumor drugs.
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10
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Wei N, Lin Z, Xu Z, Gong H, Zhang H, Zhou Y, Cao J, Li G, Zhou J. Immunosuppressive effects of tick protein RHcyst-1 on murine bone marrow-derived dendritic cells. Parasit Vectors 2019; 12:169. [PMID: 30987665 PMCID: PMC6466765 DOI: 10.1186/s13071-019-3411-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/02/2018] [Accepted: 03/26/2019] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Ticks, as blood-feeding arthropod vectors, have evolved their own unique mechanism to suppress host immune responses and evade immune defenses in order to complete blood-feeding. The immunoregulatory effect of tick bioactive molecules on hosts has been widely reported, and the cystatin family has been identified as one of the major immunomodulators. In previous studies, we obtained a novel tick salivary bioactive protein named RHcyst-1, which belongs to the type 1 cystatin family. Here, we demonstrated the effects of RHcyst-1 on the host immune response mainly on dendritic cell (DC) function. Understanding the function of tick-derived bioactive molecule may help to clarify the mechanisms of how ticks escape the host immune response and help to control ticks and tick-borne disease transmission. METHODS Bone marrow-derived DCs (BMDCs) were generated and induced by GM-CSF and IL-4 with or without RHcyst-1 addition. Flow cytometry was used to analyze the differentiation and maturation of BMDCs and T cell cytokine production. Quantitative real-time PCR (qRT-PCR) and western blot were used to measure changes in expression within STAT and p38 MAPK signaling pathways. RESULTS Flow cytometry analysis revealed that RHcyst-1 inhibited the differentiation of BMDCs, but had no effect on the maturation of BMDCs. T cells co-cultured with DCs treated with RHcyst-1 produced significantly less TNF-α, IFN-γ and IL-2 than the control group. Further analysis showed that the mRNA level and phosphorylation of p38, ERK and STAT were significantly changed after RHcyst-1 added to bone marrow monocytes during the differentiation stage. CONCLUSIONS Our results suggest that RHcyst-1 is one of the major immunosuppressive proteins of BMDC function from blood-feeding ticks.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nana Wei
- Key Laboratory of Animal Parasitology of Ministry of Agriculture, Shanghai Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Shanghai, China
| | - Zhibing Lin
- Key Laboratory of Animal Parasitology of Ministry of Agriculture, Shanghai Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Shanghai, China
| | - Zhengmao Xu
- Key Laboratory of Animal Parasitology of Ministry of Agriculture, Shanghai Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Shanghai, China
| | - Haiyan Gong
- Key Laboratory of Animal Parasitology of Ministry of Agriculture, Shanghai Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Shanghai, China
| | - Houshuang Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Animal Parasitology of Ministry of Agriculture, Shanghai Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Shanghai, China
| | - Yongzhi Zhou
- Key Laboratory of Animal Parasitology of Ministry of Agriculture, Shanghai Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Shanghai, China
| | - Jie Cao
- Key Laboratory of Animal Parasitology of Ministry of Agriculture, Shanghai Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Shanghai, China
| | - Guoqing Li
- Guangdong Provincial Zoonosis Prevention and Control Key Laboratory, College of Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Jinlin Zhou
- Key Laboratory of Animal Parasitology of Ministry of Agriculture, Shanghai Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Shanghai, China.
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Abstract
Cathepsins (CTS) are mainly lysosomal acid hydrolases extensively involved in the prognosis of different diseases, and having a distinct role in tumor progression by regulating cell proliferation, autophagy, angiogenesis, invasion, and metastasis. As all these processes conjunctively lead to cancer progression, their site-specific regulation might be beneficial for cancer treatment. CTS regulate activation of the proteolytic cascade and protein turnover, while extracellular CTS is involved in promoting extracellular matrix degradation and angiogenesis, thereby stimulating invasion and metastasis. Despite cancer regulation, the involvement of CTS in cellular adaptation toward chemotherapy and radiotherapy augments their therapeutic potential. However, lysosomal permeabilization mediated cytosolic translocation of CTS induces programmed cell death. This complex behavior of CTS generates the need to discuss the different aspects of CTS associated with cancer regulation. In this review, we mainly focused on the significance of each cathepsin in cancer signaling and their targeting which would provide noteworthy information in the context of cancer biology and therapeutics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tejinder Pal Khaket
- Department of Biotechnology, Daegu University, Gyeongsan, Gyeongbuk 38453, Republic of Korea
| | - Taeg Kyu Kwon
- Department of Immunology, School of Medicine, Keimyung University, Dalseo-Gu, Daegu 704-701, Republic of Korea.
| | - Sun Chul Kang
- Department of Biotechnology, Daegu University, Gyeongsan, Gyeongbuk 38453, Republic of Korea.
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12
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Cysteine cathepsins as a prospective target for anticancer therapies-current progress and prospects. Biochimie 2018; 151:85-106. [PMID: 29870804 DOI: 10.1016/j.biochi.2018.05.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2017] [Accepted: 05/31/2018] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
Cysteine cathepsins (CTS), being involved in both physiological and pathological processes, play an important role in the human body. During the last 30 years, it has been shown that CTS are highly upregulated in a wide variety of cancer types although they have received a little attention as a potential therapeutic target as compared to serine or metalloproteinases. Studies on the increasing problem of neoplastic progression have revealed that secretion of cell-surface- and intracellular cysteine proteases is aberrant in tumor cells and has an impact on their growth, invasion, and metastasis by taking part in tumor angiogenesis, in apoptosis, and in events of inflammatory and immune responses. Considering the role of CTS in carcinogenesis, inhibition of these enzymes becomes an attractive strategy for cancer therapy. The downregulation of natural CTS inhibitors (CTSsis), such as cystatins, observed in various types of cancer, supports this claim. The intention of this review is to highlight the relationship of CTS with cancer and to present illustrations that explain how some of their inhibitors affect processes related to neoplastic progression.
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13
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Johnstone CN, Pattison AD, Gorringe KL, Harrison PF, Powell DR, Lock P, Baloyan D, Ernst M, Stewart AG, Beilharz TH, Anderson RL. Functional and genomic characterisation of a xenograft model system for the study of metastasis in triple-negative breast cancer. Dis Model Mech 2018; 11:dmm032250. [PMID: 29720474 PMCID: PMC5992606 DOI: 10.1242/dmm.032250] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2017] [Accepted: 04/13/2018] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) represents 10-20% of all human ductal adenocarcinomas and has a poor prognosis relative to other subtypes. Hence, new molecular targets for therapeutic intervention are necessary. Analyses of panels of human or mouse cancer lines derived from the same individual that differ in their cellular phenotypes but not in genetic background have been instrumental in defining the molecular players that drive the various hallmarks of cancer. To determine the molecular regulators of metastasis in TNBC, we completed a rigorous in vitro and in vivo characterisation of four populations of the MDA-MB-231 human breast cancer line ranging in aggressiveness from non-metastatic to spontaneously metastatic to lung, liver, spleen and lymph node. Single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) array analyses and genome-wide mRNA expression profiles of tumour cells isolated from orthotopic mammary xenografts were compared between the four lines to define both cell autonomous pathways and genes associated with metastatic proclivity. Gene set enrichment analysis (GSEA) demonstrated an unexpected association between both ribosome biogenesis and mRNA metabolism and metastatic capacity. Differentially expressed genes or families of related genes were allocated to one of four categories, associated with either metastatic initiation (e.g. CTSC, ENG, BMP2), metastatic virulence (e.g. ADAMTS1, TIE1), metastatic suppression (e.g. CST1, CST2, CST4, CST6, SCNNA1, BMP4) or metastatic avirulence (e.g. CD74). Collectively, this model system based on MDA-MB-231 cells should be useful for the assessment of gene function in the metastatic cascade and also for the testing of novel experimental therapeutics for the treatment of TNBC.This article has an associated First Person interview with the first author of the paper.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cameron N Johnstone
- Cancer Research Division, Peter MacCallum Cancer Centre, Victorian Comprehensive Cancer Centre, Parkville, Victoria 3050, Australia
- Sir Peter MacCallum Department of Oncology, University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria 3050, Australia
- Department of Pathology, University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria 3010, Australia
- Olivia Newton-John Cancer Research Institute, Heidelberg, Victoria 3084, Australia
- School of Cancer Medicine, La Trobe University, Bundoora, Victoria 3086, Australia
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria 3800, Australia
- Department of Pharmacology & Therapeutics, University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria 3010, Australia
| | - Andrew D Pattison
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria 3800, Australia
- Biomedicine Discovery Institute, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria 3800, Australia
| | - Kylie L Gorringe
- Cancer Research Division, Peter MacCallum Cancer Centre, Victorian Comprehensive Cancer Centre, Parkville, Victoria 3050, Australia
- Sir Peter MacCallum Department of Oncology, University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria 3050, Australia
| | - Paul F Harrison
- Monash Bioinformatics Platform, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria 3800, Australia
| | - David R Powell
- Biomedicine Discovery Institute, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria 3800, Australia
- Monash Bioinformatics Platform, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria 3800, Australia
| | - Peter Lock
- LIMS Bioimaging Facility, La Trobe Institute for Molecular Science, La Trobe University, Bundoora, Victoria 3086, Australia
| | - David Baloyan
- Olivia Newton-John Cancer Research Institute, Heidelberg, Victoria 3084, Australia
| | - Matthias Ernst
- Olivia Newton-John Cancer Research Institute, Heidelberg, Victoria 3084, Australia
- School of Cancer Medicine, La Trobe University, Bundoora, Victoria 3086, Australia
| | - Alastair G Stewart
- Department of Pharmacology & Therapeutics, University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria 3010, Australia
| | - Traude H Beilharz
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria 3800, Australia
- Biomedicine Discovery Institute, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria 3800, Australia
| | - Robin L Anderson
- Cancer Research Division, Peter MacCallum Cancer Centre, Victorian Comprehensive Cancer Centre, Parkville, Victoria 3050, Australia
- Sir Peter MacCallum Department of Oncology, University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria 3050, Australia
- Department of Pathology, University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria 3010, Australia
- Olivia Newton-John Cancer Research Institute, Heidelberg, Victoria 3084, Australia
- School of Cancer Medicine, La Trobe University, Bundoora, Victoria 3086, Australia
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DNA hypermethyation and silencing of PITX1 correlated with advanced stage and poor postoperative prognosis of esophageal squamous cell carcinoma. Oncotarget 2017; 8:84434-84448. [PMID: 29137437 PMCID: PMC5663609 DOI: 10.18632/oncotarget.21375] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/21/2017] [Accepted: 09/03/2017] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Esophageal squamous cell carcinoma (ESCC) is associated with the accumulation of genetic and epigenetic changes in the background mucosa. Dysregulated DNA methylation is known to lead to the inactivation of tumor suppressor genes and the activation of oncogenes. To identify the genes whose expression is perturbed by abnormal DNA methylation in ESCC, integrative transcriptomics by serial analysis of gene expression (SAGE) and methylome sequencing by methyl-DNA immunoprecipitation (MeDIP) analysis were performed. We found 159 genes with significantly decreased expression in ESCC compared to that in noncancerous esophageal mucosa. MeDIP-seq analysis identified hypermethylation in the promoter region of 56 of these genes. Using surgically resected tissues of 40 cases, we confirmed that the paired-like homeodomain 1 (PITX1) gene was hypermethylated in ESCC compared to that in normal tissues (P < 0.0001) by pyrosequencing. PITX1 overexpression in ESCC cell lines inhibited cell growth and colony formation, whereas PITX1 knockdown accelerated cell growth. A PITX1-transfected ESCC cell line, KYSE30, formed smaller tumors in nude mice than in mock-transfected cells. Hypermethylation of PITX1 was associated with tumor depth (P = 0.0011) and advanced tumor stage (P = 0.0052) and predicted poor survival in ESCC (hazard ratio, 0.1538; 95% confidence interval, 0.03159–0.7488; P = 0.0169). In this study, we found a novel tumor suppressor gene of ESCC, PITX1, which is silenced by DNA hypermethylation. Downregulation of PITX1 contributes to the growth and progression of ESCC. Hypermethylation of the PITX1 in ESCC correlated with tumor progression and advanced stage cancer, and may predict a poor prognosis.
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15
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Wallin H, Apelqvist J, Andersson F, Ekström U, Abrahamson M. Low-level internalization of cystatin E/M affects legumain activity and migration of melanoma cells. J Biol Chem 2017. [PMID: 28630039 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m117.776138] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/03/2023] Open
Abstract
The ratio between proteases and their inhibitors is unbalanced in cancer. The cysteine protease inhibitor cystatin C is internalized by some cancer cells, which affects cellular properties. Here we aimed to investigate if uptake of cystatin C and the related inhibitor cystatin E/M occur in melanoma cell lines and to evaluate to what extent the uptake affects the legumain activity that is typically increased in melanoma. First we studied the basic expression, secretion, and intracellular content of all type 2 cystatins as well as expression and activity of their possible target enzymes legumain and cathepsin B in MDA-MB-435S, A375, and C8161 melanoma cells. Legumain activity was measureable in all cell lines, and of the potential legumain inhibitors, cystatin C, E/M, and F, cystatin C was the one mainly produced. All cells internalized cystatin C added to culture media, leading to increased intracellular cystatin C levels by 120-200%. Cystatin E/M was internalized as well but at a modest rate. The effects on intracellular legumain activity were nevertheless pronounced, probably because the cells lacked this inhibitor, and its affinity for legumain is 100-fold higher than that of cystatin C. Likewise, the low-degree uptake resulted in reduced migration and invasion of A375 cells in Matrigel to an extent comparable with the W106F variant of cystatin C with optimal uptake properties and resulting in much higher intracellular levels. Thus, cystatin E/M appears to be a good candidate to efficiently down-regulate the increased legumain activity, possibly important for the malignant phenotype of melanoma cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hanna Wallin
- From the Department of Laboratory Medicine, Lund University, SE-221 85 Lund, Sweden
| | - Jenny Apelqvist
- From the Department of Laboratory Medicine, Lund University, SE-221 85 Lund, Sweden
| | - Freddi Andersson
- From the Department of Laboratory Medicine, Lund University, SE-221 85 Lund, Sweden
| | - Ulf Ekström
- From the Department of Laboratory Medicine, Lund University, SE-221 85 Lund, Sweden
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16
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Azimi A, Kaufman KL, Ali M, Kossard S, Fernandez-Penas P. In Silico Analysis Validates Proteomic Findings of Formalin-fixed Paraffin Embedded Cutaneous Squamous Cell Carcinoma Tissue. Cancer Genomics Proteomics 2017; 13:453-465. [PMID: 27807068 DOI: 10.21873/cgp.20008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/18/2016] [Accepted: 08/17/2016] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Cutaneous squamous cell carcinoma (cSCC) is a common type of skin cancer but there are no comprehensive proteomic studies on this entity. MATERIALS AND METHODS We employed liquid chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry (MS/MS) using formalin-fixed paraffin-embedded (FFPE) cSCC material to study the tumor and normal skin tissue proteomes. Ingenuity Pathway Analysis (IPA) was used to interpret the role of altered proteins in cSCC pathophysiology. Results were validated using the Human Protein Atlas and Oncomine database in silico. RESULTS Of 1,310 unique proteins identified, expression of an average of 144 and 88 proteins were significantly (p<0.05) increased and decreased, respectively, in the tumor samples compared to their normal counterparts. IPA analysis revealed disruptions in proteins associated with cell proliferation, apoptosis, and migration. In silico analysis confirmed that proteins corresponding to 12 antibodies, and genes corresponding to 18 proteins were differentially expressed between the two categories, validating our proteomic measurements. CONCLUSION Label-free MS-based proteomics is useful for analyzing FFPE cSCC tissues.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ali Azimi
- Department of Dermatology, Westmead Hospital, The University of Sydney, Westmead, NSW, Australia
| | - Kimberley L Kaufman
- School of Molecular Bioscience, Faculty of Science, The University of Sydney, Camperdown, NSW, Australia.,Brain and Mind Centre, The University of Sydney, Camperdown, NSW, Australia
| | - Marina Ali
- Department of Dermatology, Westmead Hospital, The University of Sydney, Westmead, NSW, Australia
| | - Steven Kossard
- Dermatopathology, Skin and Cancer Foundation Australia, Darlinghurst, NSW, Australia
| | - Pablo Fernandez-Penas
- Department of Dermatology, Westmead Hospital, The University of Sydney, Westmead, NSW, Australia
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17
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Nandy SK, Seal A. Structural Dynamics Investigation of Human Family 1 & 2 Cystatin-Cathepsin L1 Interaction: A Comparison of Binding Modes. PLoS One 2016; 11:e0164970. [PMID: 27764212 PMCID: PMC5072729 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0164970] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2016] [Accepted: 10/04/2016] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Cystatin superfamily is a large group of evolutionarily related proteins involved in numerous physiological activities through their inhibitory activity towards cysteine proteases. Despite sharing the same cystatin fold, and inhibiting cysteine proteases through the same tripartite edge involving highly conserved N-terminal region, L1 and L2 loop; cystatins differ widely in their inhibitory affinity towards C1 family of cysteine proteases and molecular details of these interactions are still elusive. In this study, inhibitory interactions of human family 1 & 2 cystatins with cathepsin L1 are predicted and their stability and viability are verified through protein docking & comparative molecular dynamics. An overall stabilization effect is observed in all cystatins on complex formation. Complexes are mostly dominated by van der Waals interaction but the relative participation of the conserved regions varied extensively. While van der Waals contacts prevail in L1 and L2 loop, N-terminal segment chiefly acts as electrostatic interaction site. In fact the comparative dynamics study points towards the instrumental role of L1 loop in directing the total interaction profile of the complex either towards electrostatic or van der Waals contacts. The key amino acid residues surfaced via interaction energy, hydrogen bonding and solvent accessible surface area analysis for each cystatin-cathepsin L1 complex influence the mode of binding and thus control the diverse inhibitory affinity of cystatins towards cysteine proteases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Suman Kumar Nandy
- Department of Biochemistry & Biophysics, University of Kalyani, Kalyani, West Bengal, India
| | - Alpana Seal
- Department of Biochemistry & Biophysics, University of Kalyani, Kalyani, West Bengal, India
- * E-mail:
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18
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Wilder CL, Walton C, Watson V, Stewart FAA, Johnson J, Peyton SR, Payne CK, Odero-Marah V, Platt MO. Differential cathepsin responses to inhibitor-induced feedback: E-64 and cystatin C elevate active cathepsin S and suppress active cathepsin L in breast cancer cells. Int J Biochem Cell Biol 2016; 79:199-208. [PMID: 27592448 DOI: 10.1016/j.biocel.2016.08.030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/11/2016] [Revised: 08/12/2016] [Accepted: 08/29/2016] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
Cathepsins are powerful proteases, once referred to as the lysosomal cysteine proteases, that have been implicated in breast cancer invasion and metastasis, but pharmaceutical inhibitors have suffered failures in clinical trials due to adverse side effects. Scientific advancement from lysosomotropic to cell impermeable cathepsin inhibitors have improved efficacy in treating disease, but off-target effects have still been problematic, motivating a need to better understand cellular feedback and responses to treatment with cathepsin inhibitors. To address this need, we investigated effects of E-64 and cystatin C, two broad spectrum cathepsin inhibitors, on cathepsin levels intra- and extracellularly in MDA-MB-231 breast cancer cells. Cathepsins S and L had opposing responses to both E-64 and cystatin C inhibitor treatments with paradoxically elevated amounts of active cathepsin S, but decreased amounts of active cathepsin L, as determined by multiplex cathepsin zymography. This indicated cellular feedback to selectively sustain the amounts of active cathepsin S even in the presence of inhibitors with subnanomolar inhibitory constant values. These differences were identified in cellular locations of cathepsins L and S, trafficking for secretion, co-localization with endocytosed inhibitors, and longer protein turnover time for cathepsin S compared to cathepsin L. Together, this work demonstrates that previously underappreciated cellular compensation and compartmentalization mechanisms may sustain elevated amounts of some active cathepsins while diminishing others after inhibitor treatment. This can confound predictions based solely on inhibitor kinetics, and must be better understood to effectively deploy therapies and dosing strategies that target cathepsins to prevent cancer progression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Catera L Wilder
- Wallace H. Coulter Department of Biomedical Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology and Emory University, Atlanta, GA 30332, USA
| | - Charlene Walton
- Wallace H. Coulter Department of Biomedical Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology and Emory University, Atlanta, GA 30332, USA
| | - Valencia Watson
- Wallace H. Coulter Department of Biomedical Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology and Emory University, Atlanta, GA 30332, USA
| | - Fermin A A Stewart
- Wallace H. Coulter Department of Biomedical Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology and Emory University, Atlanta, GA 30332, USA
| | - Jade Johnson
- Wallace H. Coulter Department of Biomedical Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology and Emory University, Atlanta, GA 30332, USA
| | - Shelly R Peyton
- Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Massachusetts Amherst, Amherst, MA 01003, USA
| | - Christine K Payne
- School of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA 30332, USA
| | - Valerie Odero-Marah
- Department of Biological Sciences, Clark Atlanta University, Atlanta, GA 30314, USA
| | - Manu O Platt
- Wallace H. Coulter Department of Biomedical Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology and Emory University, Atlanta, GA 30332, USA.
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19
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Cystatin E/M Suppresses Tumor Cell Growth through Cytoplasmic Retention of NF-κB. Mol Cell Biol 2016; 36:1776-92. [PMID: 27090639 DOI: 10.1128/mcb.00878-15] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/16/2015] [Accepted: 04/01/2016] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
We and others have shown that the cystatin E/M gene is inactivated in primary human tumors, pointing to its role as a tumor suppressor gene. However, the molecular mechanism of tumor suppression is not yet understood. Using plasmid-directed cystatin E/M gene overexpression, a lentivirus-mediated tetracycline-inducible vector system, and human papillomavirus 16 (HPV 16) E6 and E7 gene-immortalized normal human epidermal keratinocytes, we demonstrated intracellular and non-cell-autonomous apoptotic growth inhibition of tumor cell lines and that growth inhibition is associated with cytoplasmic retention of NF-κB. We further demonstrated decreased phosphorylation of IκB kinase (IKKβ) and IκBα in the presence of tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α), confirming the role of cystatin E/M in the regulation of the NF-κB signaling pathway. Growth suppression of nude mouse xenograft tumors carrying a tetracycline-inducible vector system was observed with the addition of doxycycline in drinking water, confirming that the cystatin E/M gene is a tumor suppressor gene. Finally, immunohistochemical analyses of cervical carcinoma in situ and primary tumors have shown a statistically significant inverse relationship between the expression of cystatin E/M and cathepsin L and a direct relationship between the loss of cystatin E/M expression and nuclear expression of NF-κB. We therefore propose that the cystatin E/M suppressor gene plays an important role in the regulation of NF-κB.
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20
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p53 directly activates cystatin D/CST5 to mediate mesenchymal-epithelial transition: a possible link to tumor suppression by vitamin D3. Oncotarget 2016; 6:15842-56. [PMID: 26158294 PMCID: PMC4599241 DOI: 10.18632/oncotarget.4683] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/04/2015] [Accepted: 06/10/2015] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Cystatin D (CST5) encodes an inhibitor of cysteine proteases of the cathepsin family and is directly induced by the vitamin D receptor (VDR). Interestingly, vitamin D3 exerts tumor suppressive effects in a variety of tumor types. In colorectal cancer (CRC) cells CST5 was shown to mediate mesenchymal-epithelial transition (MET). Interestingly, vitamin D3 was shown to exert tumor suppressive effects in a variety of tumor types, including colorectal cancer (CRC). We recently performed an integrated genomic and proteomic screen to identify targets of the p53 tumor suppressor in CRC cells. Thereby, we identified CST5 as a putative p53 target gene. Here, we validated and characterized CST5 as a direct p53 target gene. After activation of a conditional p53 allele, CST5 was upregulated on mRNA and protein levels. Treatment with nutlin-3a or etoposide induced CST5 in a p53-dependent manner. These regulations were direct, since ectopic and endogenous p53 occupied a conserved binding site in the CST5 promoter region. In addition, treatment with calcitriol, the active vitamin D3 metabolite, and simultaneous activation of p53 resulted in enhanced CST5 induction and increased repression of SNAIL, an epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) inducing transcription factor. Furthermore, CST5 inactivation decreased p53-induced mesenchymal-epithelial transition (MET) as evidenced by decreased inhibition of SNAIL and of migration by p53. Furthermore, CST5 expression was directly repressed by SNAIL. In summary, these results imply CST5 as an important mediator of tumor suppression by p53 in colorectal cancer. In addition, they suggest that a combined treatment activating p53 and the vitamin D3 pathway may function via induction of CST5.
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21
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Flat SAR of P3-methylsulphonamide based small molecule legumain inhibitors. Bioorg Med Chem Lett 2016; 26:413-416. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bmcl.2015.11.101] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/10/2015] [Revised: 11/26/2015] [Accepted: 11/27/2015] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
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22
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Pixberg CF, Schulz WA, Stoecklein NH, Neves RPL. Characterization of DNA Methylation in Circulating Tumor Cells. Genes (Basel) 2015; 6:1053-75. [PMID: 26506390 PMCID: PMC4690028 DOI: 10.3390/genes6041053] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2015] [Revised: 10/09/2015] [Accepted: 10/14/2015] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Epigenetics contributes to molecular mechanisms leading to tumor cell transformation and systemic progression of cancer. However, the dynamics of epigenetic remodeling during metastasis remains unexplored. In this context, circulating tumor cells (CTCs) might enable a direct insight into epigenetic mechanisms relevant for metastasis by providing direct access to systemic cancer. CTCs can be used as prognostic markers in cancer patients and are regarded as potential metastatic precursor cells. However, despite substantial technical progress, the detection and molecular characterization of CTCs remain challenging, in particular the analysis of DNA methylation. As recent studies have started to address the epigenetic state of CTCs, we discuss here the potential of such investigations to elucidate mechanisms of metastasis and to develop tumor biomarkers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Constantin F Pixberg
- Department of General, Visceral and Pediatric Surgery, University Hospital and Medical Faculty of the Heinrich-Heine University Düsseldorf, Moorenstr. 5, 40225 Düsseldorf, Germany.
| | - Wolfgang A Schulz
- Department of Urology, University Hospital and Medical Faculty of the Heinrich-Heine University Düsseldorf, Universitätsstr. 1, 40225 Düsseldorf, Germany.
| | - Nikolas H Stoecklein
- Department of General, Visceral and Pediatric Surgery, University Hospital and Medical Faculty of the Heinrich-Heine University Düsseldorf, Moorenstr. 5, 40225 Düsseldorf, Germany.
| | - Rui P L Neves
- Department of General, Visceral and Pediatric Surgery, University Hospital and Medical Faculty of the Heinrich-Heine University Düsseldorf, Moorenstr. 5, 40225 Düsseldorf, Germany.
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23
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Ness KA, Eddie SL, Higgins CA, Templeman A, D'Costa Z, Gaddale KKD, Bouzzaoui S, Jordan L, Janssen D, Harrison T, Burkamp F, Young A, Burden R, Scott CJ, Mullan PB, Williams R. Development of a potent and selective cell penetrant Legumain inhibitor. Bioorg Med Chem Lett 2015; 25:5642-5. [PMID: 26522952 DOI: 10.1016/j.bmcl.2015.10.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/10/2015] [Revised: 09/30/2015] [Accepted: 10/01/2015] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
This Letter describes the continued SAR exploration of small molecule Legumain inhibitors with the aim of developing a potent and selective in vitro tool compound. Work continued in this Letter explores the use of alternative P2-P3 linker units and the P3 group SAR which led to the identification of 10t, a potent, selective and cellularly active Legumain inhibitor. We also demonstrate that 10t has activity in both cancer cell viability and colony formation assays.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kerry A Ness
- CCRCB Drug Discovery Group, Centre for Cancer Research and Cell Biology, Queen's University Belfast, 97 Lisburn Rd., Belfast BT9 7BL, UK
| | - Sharon L Eddie
- CCRCB Drug Discovery Group, Centre for Cancer Research and Cell Biology, Queen's University Belfast, 97 Lisburn Rd., Belfast BT9 7BL, UK
| | - Catherine A Higgins
- CCRCB Drug Discovery Group, Centre for Cancer Research and Cell Biology, Queen's University Belfast, 97 Lisburn Rd., Belfast BT9 7BL, UK
| | - Amy Templeman
- CCRCB Drug Discovery Group, Centre for Cancer Research and Cell Biology, Queen's University Belfast, 97 Lisburn Rd., Belfast BT9 7BL, UK
| | - Zenobia D'Costa
- CCRCB Drug Discovery Group, Centre for Cancer Research and Cell Biology, Queen's University Belfast, 97 Lisburn Rd., Belfast BT9 7BL, UK
| | - Kishore K D Gaddale
- CCRCB Drug Discovery Group, Centre for Cancer Research and Cell Biology, Queen's University Belfast, 97 Lisburn Rd., Belfast BT9 7BL, UK
| | - Samira Bouzzaoui
- CCRCB Drug Discovery Group, Centre for Cancer Research and Cell Biology, Queen's University Belfast, 97 Lisburn Rd., Belfast BT9 7BL, UK
| | - Linda Jordan
- Almac Discovery, Almac House, 20 Seagoe Industrial Estate, Craigavon BT63 5QD, UK
| | - Dominic Janssen
- Almac Discovery, Almac House, 20 Seagoe Industrial Estate, Craigavon BT63 5QD, UK
| | - Timothy Harrison
- Almac Discovery, Almac House, 20 Seagoe Industrial Estate, Craigavon BT63 5QD, UK
| | - Frank Burkamp
- Almac Discovery, Almac House, 20 Seagoe Industrial Estate, Craigavon BT63 5QD, UK
| | - Andrew Young
- School of Pharmacy, Queen's University Belfast, 97 Lisburn Rd., Belfast BT9 7BL, UK
| | - Roberta Burden
- School of Pharmacy, Queen's University Belfast, 97 Lisburn Rd., Belfast BT9 7BL, UK
| | - Christopher J Scott
- School of Pharmacy, Queen's University Belfast, 97 Lisburn Rd., Belfast BT9 7BL, UK
| | - Paul B Mullan
- CCRCB Drug Discovery Group, Centre for Cancer Research and Cell Biology, Queen's University Belfast, 97 Lisburn Rd., Belfast BT9 7BL, UK
| | - Rich Williams
- CCRCB Drug Discovery Group, Centre for Cancer Research and Cell Biology, Queen's University Belfast, 97 Lisburn Rd., Belfast BT9 7BL, UK.
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24
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Diep CM, Kaur G, Keppler D, Lin AW. Retroviral expression of human cystatin genes in HeLa cells. Methods Mol Biol 2014; 1249:121-31. [PMID: 25348302 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4939-2013-6_9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/21/2023]
Abstract
Retroviral gene transfer is a highly efficient and effective method of stably introducing genetic material into the genome of specific cell types. The process involves the transfection of retroviral expression vectors into a packaging cell line, the isolation of viral particles, and the infection of target cell lines. Compared to traditional gene transfer methods such as liposome-mediated transfection, retroviral gene transfer allows for stable gene expression in cell populations without the need for lengthy selection and cloning procedures. This is particularly helpful when studying gene products that have negative effect on cell growth and viability. Here, we describe the retroviral transfer of cystatin cDNAs using HEK293-derived Phoenix packaging cells and human HeLa cervical carcinoma cells as target cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Crystal M Diep
- College of Pharmacy, Touro University California, Vallejo, CA, USA
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Higgins C, Bouazzaoui S, Gaddale K, D’Costa Z, Templeman A, O’Rourke M, Young A, Scott C, Harrison T, Mullan P, Williams R. P3 SAR exploration of biphenyl carbamate based Legumain inhibitors. Bioorg Med Chem Lett 2014; 24:2521-4. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bmcl.2014.04.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2014] [Revised: 03/31/2014] [Accepted: 04/01/2014] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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Abstract
Cystatins comprise a large superfamily of related proteins with diverse biological activities. They were initially characterised as inhibitors of lysosomal cysteine proteases, however, in recent years some alternative functions for cystatins have been proposed. Cystatins possessing inhibitory function are members of three families, family I (stefins), family II (cystatins) and family III (kininogens). Stefin A is often linked to neoplastic changes in epithelium while another family I cystatin, stefin B is supposed to have a specific role in neuredegenerative diseases. Cystatin C, a typical type II cystatin, is expressed in a variety of human tissues and cells. On the other hand, expression of other type II cystatins is more specific. Cystatin F is an endo/lysosome targeted protease inhibitor, selectively expressed in immune cells, suggesting its role in processes related to immune response. Our recent work points on its role in regulation of dendritic cell maturation and in natural killer cells functional inactivation that may enhance tumor survival. Cystatin E/M expression is mainly restricted to the epithelia of the skin which emphasizes its prominent role in cutaneous biology. Here, we review the current knowledge on type I (stefins A and B) and type II cystatins (cystatins C, F and E/M) in pathologies, with particular emphasis on their suppressive vs. promotional function in the tumorigenesis and metastasis. We proposed that an imbalance between cathepsins and cystatins may attenuate immune cell functions and facilitate tumor cell invasion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Spela Magister
- 1. Jožef Stefan Institute, Department of Biotechnology, Ljubljana, Slovenia
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Nandy SK, Bhuyan R, Seal A. Modelling family 2 cystatins and their interaction with papain. J Biomol Struct Dyn 2012; 31:649-64. [PMID: 22881286 DOI: 10.1080/07391102.2012.706403] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
Abstract
Cystatins are extensively studied cysteine protease inhibitors, found in wide range of organisms with highly conserved structural folds. S-type of cystatins is well known for their abundance in saliva, high selectivity and poorer activity towards host cysteine proteases in comparison to their immediate ancestor cystatin C. Despite more than 90% sequence similarity, the members of this group show highly dissimilar binding affinity towards papain. Cystatin M/E is a potent inhibitor of legumain and papain like cysteine proteases and recognized for its involvement in skin barrier formation and potential role as a tumor suppressor gene. However, the structures of these proteins and their complexes with papain or legumain are still unknown. In the present study, we have employed computational methods to get insight into the interactions between papain and cystatins. Three-dimensional structures of the cystatins are generated by homology modelling, refined with molecular dynamics simulation, validated through numerous web servers and finally complexed with papain using ZDOCK algorithm in Discovery Studio. A high degree of shape complementarity is observed within the complexes, stabilized by numerous hydrogen bonds (HB) and hydrophobic interactions. Using interaction energy, HB and solvent accessible surface area analyses, we have identified a series of key residues that may be involved in papain-cystatin interaction. Differential approaches of cystatins towards papain are also noticed which are possibly responsible for diverse inhibitory activity within the group. These findings will improve our understanding of fundamental inhibitory mechanisms of cystatin and provide clues for further research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Suman Kumar Nandy
- Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, University of Kalyani, Kalyani, 741235, India
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Jin L, Zhang Y, Li H, Yao L, Fu D, Yao X, Xu LX, Hu X, Hu G. Differential secretome analysis reveals CST6 as a suppressor of breast cancer bone metastasis. Cell Res 2012; 22:1356-73. [PMID: 22688893 DOI: 10.1038/cr.2012.90] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Bone metastasis is a frequent complication of breast cancer and a common cause of morbidity and mortality from the disease. During metastasis secreted proteins play crucial roles in the interactions between cancer cells and host stroma. To characterize the secreted proteins that are associated with breast cancer bone metastasis, we preformed a label-free proteomic analysis to compare the secretomes of four MDA-MB-231 (MDA231) derivative cell lines with varied capacities of bone metastasis. A total of 128 proteins were found to be consistently up-/down-regulated in the conditioned medium of bone-tropic cancer cells. The enriched molecular functions of the altered proteins included receptor binding and peptidase inhibition. Through additional transcriptomic analyses of breast cancer cells, we selected cystatin E/M (CST6), a cysteine protease inhibitor down-regulated in bone-metastatic cells, for further functional studies. Our results showed that CST6 suppressed the proliferation, colony formation, migration and invasion of breast cancer cells. The suppressive function against cancer cell motility was carried out by cancer cell-derived soluble CST6. More importantly, ectopic expression of CST6 in cancer cells rescued mice from overt osteolytic metastasis and deaths in the animal study, while CST6 knockdown markedly enhanced cancer cell bone metastasis and shortened animal survival. Overall, our study provided a systemic secretome analysis of breast cancer bone tropism and established secreted CST6 as a bona fide suppressor of breast cancer osteolytic metastasis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lei Jin
- The Key Laboratory of Stem Cell Biology, Institute of Health Sciences, Shanghai Institutes for Biological Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences & Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, 225 South Chongqing Rd, Shanghai 200025, China
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Fedrowitz M, Löscher W. Gene expression in the mammary gland tissue of female Fischer 344 and Lewis rats after magnetic field exposure (50 Hz, 100 μT) for 2 weeks. Int J Radiat Biol 2012; 88:425-9. [PMID: 22280403 DOI: 10.3109/09553002.2012.660555] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE The issue of whether exposure to environmental power-frequency magnetic fields (MF) has impact on breast cancer development still remains equivocal. Previously, we observed rat strain differences in the MF response of breast tissue, so that the genetic background plays a role in MF effects. The present experiment aimed to elucidate candidate genes involved in MF effects by comparison of MF-susceptible Fischer 344 (F344) rats and MF-insensitive Lewis rats. MATERIALS AND METHODS Female F344 and Lewis rats were exposed to MF (50 Hz, 100 μT) for two weeks, and a whole genome microarray analysis in the mammary gland tissue was performed. RESULTS A remarkably decreased α-amylase gene expression, decreases in carbonic anhydrase 6 and lactoperoxidase, both relevant for pH regulation, and an increased gene expression of cystatin E/M, a tumor suppressor, were observed in MF-exposed F344, but not in Lewis rats. CONCLUSION The MF-exposed F344 breast tissue showed alterations in gene expression, which were absent in Lewis and may therefore be involved in the MF-susceptibility of F344. Notably α-amylase might serve as a promising target to study MF effects, because first experiments indicate that MF exposure alters the functionality of this enzyme in breast tissue.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maren Fedrowitz
- Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology, and Pharmacy, University of Veterinary Medicine, Hannover, Germany.
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Morrison C, Mancini S, Cipollone J, Kappelhoff R, Roskelley C, Overall C. Microarray and proteomic analysis of breast cancer cell and osteoblast co-cultures: role of osteoblast matrix metalloproteinase (MMP)-13 in bone metastasis. J Biol Chem 2011; 286:34271-85. [PMID: 21784845 PMCID: PMC3190775 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m111.222513] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/17/2011] [Revised: 07/20/2011] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Dynamic reciprocal interactions between a tumor and its microenvironment impact both the establishment and progression of metastases. These interactions are mediated, in part, through proteolytic sculpting of the microenvironment, particularly by the matrix metalloproteinases, with both tumors and stroma contributing to the proteolytic milieu. Because bone is one of the predominant sites of breast cancer metastases, we used a co-culture system in which a subpopulation of the highly invasive human breast cancer cell line MDA-MB-231, with increased propensity to metastasize to bone, was overlaid onto a monolayer of differentiated osteoblast MC3T3-E1 cells in a mineralized osteoid matrix. CLIP-CHIP® microarrays identified changes in the complete protease and inhibitor expression profile of the breast cancer and osteoblast cells that were induced upon co-culture. A large increase in osteoblast-derived MMP-13 mRNA and protein was observed. Affymetrix analysis and validation showed induction of MMP-13 was initiated by soluble factors produced by the breast tumor cells, including oncostatin M and the acute response apolipoprotein SAA3. Significant changes in the osteoblast secretomes upon addition of MMP-13 were identified by degradomics from which six novel MMP-13 substrates with the potential to functionally impact breast cancer metastasis to bone were identified and validated. These included inactivation of the chemokines CCL2 and CCL7, activation of platelet-derived growth factor-C, and cleavage of SAA3, osteoprotegerin, CutA, and antithrombin III. Hence, the influence of breast cancer metastases on the bone microenvironment that is executed via the induction of osteoblast MMP-13 with the potential to enhance metastases growth by generating a microenvironmental amplifying feedback loop is revealed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Charlotte Morrison
- From the Centre for Blood Research and
- Departments of Oral Biological and Medical Sciences
| | - Stephanie Mancini
- Cellular and Physiological Sciences, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia V6T 1Z3, Canada
| | - Jane Cipollone
- Cellular and Physiological Sciences, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia V6T 1Z3, Canada
| | - Reinhild Kappelhoff
- From the Centre for Blood Research and
- Departments of Oral Biological and Medical Sciences
| | - Calvin Roskelley
- Cellular and Physiological Sciences, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia V6T 1Z3, Canada
| | - Christopher Overall
- From the Centre for Blood Research and
- Departments of Oral Biological and Medical Sciences
- Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, and
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Eliyahu E, Shtraizent N, He X, Chen D, Shalgi R, Schuchman EH. Identification of cystatin SA as a novel inhibitor of acid ceramidase. J Biol Chem 2011; 286:35624-35633. [PMID: 21846728 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m111.260372] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Autoproteolytic cleavage of the inactive acid ceramidase (AC) precursor into the active heterodimer exposes a free cysteine residue, leading us to study whether AC could be regulated by one or more members of the cystatin family. Co-expression of the full-length AC and cystatin SA (cysSA) cDNAs led to significant reduction of AC activity in the transfected cells. Expression of cysSA also inhibited endogenous AC activity in cells and increased ceramide. Conversely, cysSA siRNA expression led to elevated AC activity and reduction in ceramide. The effects of cysSA siRNA expression could be reversed by the addition of recombinant cysSA into the culture media. These results were consistent with detection of a physical interaction between AC and cysSA, assessed by co-immunoprecipitation and nickel-nitrilotriacetic acid affinity chromatography, and further supported by co-localization of the endogenous proteins using confocal microscopy. In vitro kinetic analysis of purified, recombinant AC and cysSA confirmed the transfection results and suggested a non-competitive type of inhibition with a K(i) in the low micromolar range. Processing of the AC precursor into the active form was not affected by cysSA expression, suggesting that it likely inhibits AC by allosteric interference. Computer modeling and expression studies identified several potential inhibitory domains in cysSA, including a small "AC-like" domain (identical to the AC cleavage site, TICT). Small peptides, synthesized with combinations of this and a "cystatin-like" domain (QXVXG), exhibited significant AC inhibition as well. Such peptide-based AC inhibitors could potentially be used to regulate AC activity in cancer cells that are known to overexpress this enzyme alone and in combination with conventional anti-cancer drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Efrat Eliyahu
- Department of Genetics and Genomic Sciences, Mount Sinai School of Medicine, New York, New York 10029
| | - Nataly Shtraizent
- Department of Genetics and Genomic Sciences, Mount Sinai School of Medicine, New York, New York 10029; Department of Developmental and Cell Biology, Sackler School of Medicine, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel 69978
| | - Xingxuan He
- Department of Genetics and Genomic Sciences, Mount Sinai School of Medicine, New York, New York 10029
| | - Dafna Chen
- Department of Genetics and Genomic Sciences, Mount Sinai School of Medicine, New York, New York 10029
| | - Ruth Shalgi
- Department of Developmental and Cell Biology, Sackler School of Medicine, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel 69978
| | - Edward H Schuchman
- Department of Genetics and Genomic Sciences, Mount Sinai School of Medicine, New York, New York 10029.
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Kasabova M, Saidi A, Naudin C, Sage J, Lecaille F, Lalmanach G. Cysteine Cathepsins: Markers and Therapy Targets in Lung Disorders. Clin Rev Bone Miner Metab 2011. [DOI: 10.1007/s12018-011-9094-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
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Keppler D, Zhang J, Bihani T, Lin AW. Novel Expression of CST1 as Candidate Senescence Marker. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2011; 66:723-31. [DOI: 10.1093/gerona/glr033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
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Ko E, Park SE, Cho EY, Kim Y, Hwang JA, Lee YS, Nam SJ, Bang S, Park J, Kim DH. Cystatin M loss is associated with the losses of estrogen receptor, progesterone receptor, and HER4 in invasive breast cancer. Breast Cancer Res 2010; 12:R100. [PMID: 21092257 PMCID: PMC3046445 DOI: 10.1186/bcr2783] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2010] [Revised: 10/20/2010] [Accepted: 11/23/2010] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Introduction This study was aimed at understanding the clinicopathological significance of cystatin M loss, and investigating possible factors responsible for cystatin M loss in breast cancer. Methods The expression of estrogen receptor (ER), progesterone receptor (PR), HER2, HER4, and cystatin M was retrospectively analyzed using immunohistochemistry in 117 patients with ductal carcinoma in situ (DCIS) and in 175 patients with invasive breast cancer (IBC). The methylation status of CST6 gene encoding cystatin M was evaluated using methylation-specific polymerase chain reaction (PCR) in formalin-fixed paraffin-embedded tissues from 292 participants and using pyrosequencing in fresh-frozen tumor and matched normal tissues from 51 IBC patients. Results Cystatin M loss was found in 9 (8%) of 117 patients with DCIS and in 99 (57%) of 175 with invasive breast cancer (IBC) (P < 0.0001). Cystatin M loss was found in 58 (57%) of 101 HER2-negative IBCs and in 41 (55%) of 74 HER2-positive IBCs, and this difference was not statistically significant (P = 0.97). However, cystatin M loss was significantly associated with the loss of ER (P = 0.01), PR (P = 0.002), and HER4 (P = 0.003) in IBCs. Cystatin M loss occurred in 34 (76%) of the 45 HER4-negative IBCs and in 65 (50%) of the 130 HER4-positive IBCs. Multivariate analysis showed that cystatin M loss occurred at a 3.57 times (95% CI = 1.28 to 9.98; P = 0.01) higher prevalence in the triple-negative IBCs of ER, PR, and HER4 than in other subtypes, after adjusting for age. The quantity of CST6 methylation was associated with ER loss (P = 0.0002) in IBCs but not with the loss of PR (P = 0.64) or HER4 (P = 0.87). Conclusions The present study suggests that cystatin M loss may be associated with the losses of ER, PR, and HER4 in IBC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eunkyung Ko
- Department of Molecular Cell Biology, Sungkyunkwan University School of Medicine, Jangan-gu, Suwon, Gyeonggi-do 440-746, Korea.
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Cystatins – Extra- and intracellular cysteine protease inhibitors: High-level secretion and uptake of cystatin C in human neuroblastoma cells. Biochimie 2010; 92:1625-34. [DOI: 10.1016/j.biochi.2010.08.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/08/2010] [Accepted: 08/09/2010] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
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Abstract
Cystatins, the classical inhibitors of C1 cysteine proteinases, have been extensively studied and reviewed in the literature. Over the last 20 years, however, proteins containing cystatin domains but lacking protease inhibitory activities have been identified, and most likely more will be described in the near future. These proteins together with family 1, 2, and 3 cystatins constitute the cystatin superfamily. Mounting evidence points to the new roles that some members of the superfamily have acquired over the course of their evolution. This review is focused on the roles of cystatins in: 1) tumorigenesis, 2) stabilization of matrix metalloproteinases, 3) glomerular filtration rate, 4) immunomodulation, and 5) neurodegenerative diseases. It is the goal of this review to get as many investigators as possible to take a second look at the cystatin superfamily regarding their potential involvement in serious human ailments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Josiah Ochieng
- Biochemistry and Cancer Biology, Meharry Medical College, Nashville, TN 37208, USA.
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Briggs JJ, Haugen MH, Johansen HT, Riker AI, Abrahamson M, Fodstad Ø, Maelandsmo GM, Solberg R. Cystatin E/M suppresses legumain activity and invasion of human melanoma. BMC Cancer 2010; 10:17. [PMID: 20074384 PMCID: PMC2822816 DOI: 10.1186/1471-2407-10-17] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/21/2009] [Accepted: 01/15/2010] [Indexed: 01/11/2023] Open
Abstract
Background High activity of cysteine proteases such as legumain and the cathepsins have been shown to facilitate growth and invasion of a variety of tumor types. In breast cancer, several recent studies have indicated that loss of the cysteine protease inhibitor cystatin E/M leads to increased growth and metastasis. Although cystatin E/M is normally expressed in the skin, its role in cysteine protease regulation and progression of malignant melanoma has not been studied. Methods A panel of various non-melanoma and melanoma cell lines was used. Cystatin E/M and C were analyzed in cell media by immunoblotting and ELISA. Legumain, cathepsin B and L were analyzed in cell lysates by immunoblotting and their enzymatic activities were analyzed by peptide substrates. Two melanoma cell lines lacking detectable secretion of cystatin E/M were transfected with a cystatin E/M expression plasmid (pCST6), and migration and invasiveness were studied by a Matrigel invasion assay. Results Cystatin E/M was undetectable in media from all established melanoma cell lines examined, whereas strong immunobands were detected in two of five primary melanoma lines and in two of six lines derived from patients with metastatic disease. Among the four melanoma lines secreting cystatin E/M, the glycosylated form (17 kD) was predominant compared to the non-glycosylated form (14 kD). Legumain, cathepsin B and L were expressed and active in most of the cell lines, although at low levels in the melanomas expressing cystatin E/M. In the melanoma lines where cystatin E/M was secreted, cystatin C was generally absent or expressed at a very low level. When melanoma cells lacking secretion of cystatin E/M were transfected with pCST6, their intracellular legumain activity was significantly inhibited. In contrast, cathepsin B activity was not affected. Furthermore, invasion was suppressed in cystatin E/M over-expressing melanoma cell lines as measured by the transwell Matrigel assay. Conclusions These results suggest that the level of cystatin E/M regulates legumain activity and hence the invasive potential of human melanoma cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jon J Briggs
- Department of Tumor Biology, Institute for Cancer Research, Radiumhospitalet, Oslo University Hospital, Oslo, Norway
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Chen X, Cao X, Dong W, Xia M, Luo S, Fan Q, Xie J. Cystatin M expression is reduced in gastric carcinoma and is associated with promoter hypermethylation. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2009; 391:1070-4. [PMID: 20004178 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbrc.2009.12.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/28/2009] [Accepted: 12/04/2009] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
Cystatin M is a secreted inhibitor of lysosomal cysteine proteases and increasing evidences indicate that it is a novel target for epigenetic silencing during mammary tumorigenesis. Aberrant promoter methylation is a well-known mechanism that participates in cystatin M silencing in breast cancer. However, the role of cystatin M in the gastric cancer remains to be elucidated. Immunohistochemistry was used to investigate the expression of cystatin M in 60 gastric carcinomas. Hypermethylation of cystatin M promoter was evaluated by the methylation-specific PCR (MSP) method in gastric carcinomas (tumor and paired adjacent non-tumor tissues). Reverse-transcriptase PCR and BSP were also performed on gastric cancer cell lines before and after treatment with 5-aza-2'-deoxycytidine (5-Aza-dC). Lost expression of cystatin M was observed in 42 of 60 (70%) gastric carcinomas. 55% (33 of 60) of primary tumors analyzed displayed cystatin M promoter hypermethylation, indicating that this aberrant characteristic is common in gastric malignancies. Moreover, a statistically significant inverse association was found between cystatin M methylation status and expression of the cystatin M protein in tumor tissues (p=0.027). We also found that patients with cystatin M promoter methylation had a significantly shorter survival time than those without this methylation (p=0.020). These results suggest that cystatin M promoter hypermethylation is one of the molecular mechanisms that accounts for reduced cystatin M gene expression in gastric carcinomas.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaobing Chen
- Department of Internal Medicine-Oncology, The First Affiliated Hospital, Zhengzhou University, People's Republic of China
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Kioulafa M, Balkouranidou I, Sotiropoulou G, Kaklamanis L, Mavroudis D, Georgoulias V, Lianidou ES. Methylation of cystatin M promoter is associated with unfavorable prognosis in operable breast cancer. Int J Cancer 2009; 125:2887-92. [PMID: 19551853 DOI: 10.1002/ijc.24686] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
The methylation status of cystatin M (CST6) gene in breast tumors was investigated and its prognostic significance as a novel breast cancer biomarker was evaluated. Using methylation-specific PCR (MSP), CST6 promoter methylation was examined in 134 formalin fixed paraffin-embedded tissues (FFPEs): 10 pairs of breast tumors and their surrounding normal tissues, 10 breast fibroadenomas, 11 normal breast tissues and 93 breast tumors. Methylation of CST6 promoter was observed in 2/21 (9.5%) noncancerous breast tissues, 1/10 (10%) benign breast tumors (fibroadenomas) and 52 (55.9%) operable breast cancer tumor samples. CST6 was rarely methylated in the normal tissue surrounding the tumor (10%). During the follow-up period, 24 (25.8%) patients relapsed and 19 (20.4%) died. CST6 methylation was detected in 19 (79.2%) of patients who relapsed and in 15 (78.9%) of patients who died. Disease-free-interval (DFI) and overall survival (OS) were significantly associated with CST6 promoter methylation (p=0.004 and p=0.001 respectively). Multivariate analysis revealed that CST6 methylation is an independent prognostic factor for DFI (HR=3.484; 95% CI: 1.155-10.511; p=0.027). and OS (HR=9.190; 95% CI: 1.989-42.454; p=0.004). CST6 promoter methylation status in tumor cells seems to provide important prognostic information in operable breast cancer and merits to be further evaluated and validated in a larger cohort of patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Magdalini Kioulafa
- Laboratory of Analytical Chemistry, Department of Chemistry, University of Athens, Athens, Greece
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Alvarez-Díaz S, Valle N, García JM, Peña C, Freije JMP, Quesada V, Astudillo A, Bonilla F, López-Otín C, Muñoz A. Cystatin D is a candidate tumor suppressor gene induced by vitamin D in human colon cancer cells. J Clin Invest 2009; 119:2343-58. [PMID: 19662683 DOI: 10.1172/jci37205] [Citation(s) in RCA: 86] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
The active vitamin D metabolite 1alpha,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 [1alpha,25(OH)2D3] has wide but not fully understood antitumor activity. A previous transcriptomic analysis of 1alpha,25(OH)2D3 action on human colon cancer cells revealed cystatin D (CST5), which encodes an inhibitor of several cysteine proteases of the cathepsin family, as a candidate target gene. Here we report that 1alpha,25(OH)2D3 induced vitamin D receptor (VDR) binding to, and activation of, the CST5 promoter and increased CST5 RNA and protein levels in human colon cancer cells. In cells lacking endogenous cystatin D, ectopic cystatin D expression inhibited both proliferation in vitro and xenograft tumor growth in vivo. Furthermore, cystatin D inhibited migration and anchorage-independent growth, antagonized the Wnt/beta-catenin signaling pathway, and repressed c-MYC expression. Cystatin D repressed expression of the epithelial-mesenchymal transition inducers SNAI1, SNAI2, ZEB1, and ZEB2 and, conversely, induced E-cadherin and other adhesion proteins. CST5 knockdown using shRNA abrogated the antiproliferative effect of 1alpha,25(OH)2D3, attenuated E-cadherin expression, and increased c-MYC expression. In human colorectal tumors, expression of cystatin D correlated with expression of VDR and E-cadherin, and loss of cystatin D correlated with poor tumor differentiation. Based on these data, we propose that CST5 has tumor suppressor activity that may contribute to the antitumoral action of 1alpha,25(OH)2D3 in colon cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Silvia Alvarez-Díaz
- Instituto de Investigaciones Biomédicas Alberto Sols, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas-Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, Madrid, Spain
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Abstract
Cystatin E/M (CST6) is a natural inhibitor of lysosomal cysteine proteases. Recent studies have shown that experimental manipulation of CST6 expression alters the metastatic behavior of human breast cancer cells. However, the association of CST6 with prostate cancer invasion and progression remains unclear. Here, we show that CST6 is robustly expressed in normal human prostate epithelium, whereas its expression is downregulated in metastatic prostate cell lines and prostate tumor tissues. Treatment of metastatic prostate cell lines with the histone deacetylase inhibitor trichostatin A resulted in significant induction of CST6 mRNA levels and increased CST6 protein expression, indicating that epigenetic silencing may play a role in the loss of CST6 expression observed in prostate cancer. CST6 overexpression in human prostate cancer cells significantly reduced in vitro cell proliferation and matrigel invasion. Furthermore, the results from a bioluminescence tumor/metastasis model showed that the overexpression of CST6 significantly inhibits tumor growth and the incidence of lung metastasis. These results suggest that the downregulation of the CST6 gene is associated with promoter histone modifications and that this association plays an important role in prostate cancer progression during the invasive and metastatic stages of the disease.
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Watson CJ, Kreuzaler PA. The role of cathepsins in involution and breast cancer. J Mammary Gland Biol Neoplasia 2009; 14:171-9. [PMID: 19437107 DOI: 10.1007/s10911-009-9126-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/21/2009] [Accepted: 04/23/2009] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Cysteine cathepsins are proteolytic enzymes that reside in endolysosomal vesicles. Some are expressed constitutively while others are transcriptionally regulated. However, the expression and subcellular localization of cathepsins changes during cancer progression and cathepsins have been shown to be causally involved in various aspects of tumorigenesis including metastasis. The use of mouse models of breast cancer genetically ablated for cathepsin B has shown that both the growth of the primary tumor and the extend of lung metastasis is reduced by the loss of cathepsin B. The role of cathepsins in involution of the mammary gland has received little attention although it is clear that cathepsins are involved in tissue remodeling in the second phase of involution. We discuss here the roles of cathepsins and their endogenous inhibitors in breast tumorigenesis and post-lactational involution.
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Zeeuwen PLJM, Cheng T, Schalkwijk J. The biology of cystatin M/E and its cognate target proteases. J Invest Dermatol 2009; 129:1327-38. [PMID: 19262604 DOI: 10.1038/jid.2009.40] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
Cystatin M/E is a member of a superfamily of evolutionarily-related cysteine protease inhibitors that provide regulatory and protective functions against uncontrolled proteolysis by cysteine proteases. Although most cystatins are ubiquitously expressed, high levels of cystatin M/E expression are mainly restricted to the epithelia of the skin (epidermis, hair follicles, sebaceous glands, and sweat glands) and to a few extracutaneous tissues. The identification of its physiological targets and the localization of these proteases in skin have suggested a regulatory role for cystatin M/E in epidermal differentiation. In vitro biochemical approaches as well as the use of in vivo mouse models have revealed that cystatin M/E is a key molecule in a biochemical pathway that controls skin barrier formation by the regulation of both crosslinking and desquamation of the stratum corneum. Cystatin M/E directly controls the activity of cathepsin V, cathepsin L, and legumain, thereby regulating the processing of transglutaminases. Misregulation of this pathway by unrestrained protease activity, as seen in cystatin M/E-deficient mice, leads to abnormal stratum corneum and hair follicle formation, as well as to severe disturbance of skin barrier function. Here, we review the current knowledge on cystatin M/E in skin barrier formation and its potential role as a tumor suppressor gene.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patrick L J M Zeeuwen
- Department of Dermatology, Nijmegen Centre for Molecular Life Sciences, Radboud University Nijmegen Medical Centre, Nijmegen, The Netherlands.
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Lin HJL, Zuo T, Chao JR, Peng Z, Asamoto LK, Yamashita SS, Huang THM. Seed in soil, with an epigenetic view. Biochim Biophys Acta Gen Subj 2008; 1790:920-4. [PMID: 19162126 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbagen.2008.12.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/22/2008] [Revised: 12/18/2008] [Accepted: 12/19/2008] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
It is becoming increasingly evident that discrete genetic alterations in neoplastic cells alone cannot explain multistep carcinogenesis whereby tumor cells are able to express diverse phenotypes during the complex phases of tumor development and progression. The epigenetic model posits that the host microenvironment exerts an initial, inhibitory constraint on tumor growth that is followed by acceleration of tumor progression through complex cell-matrix interactions. This review emphasizes the epigenetic aspects of breast cancer development in light of such interactions between epithelial cells ("seed") and the tumor microenvironment ("soil"). Our recent research findings suggest that epigenetic perturbations induced by the tumor microenvironment may play a causal role in promoting breast cancer development. It is believed that abrogation of these initiators could offer a promising therapeutic strategy.
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45
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Veena MS, Lee G, Keppler D, Mendonca MS, Redpath JL, Stanbridge EJ, Wilczynski SP, Srivatsan ES. Inactivation of the cystatin E/M tumor suppressor gene in cervical cancer. Genes Chromosomes Cancer 2008; 47:740-54. [PMID: 18506750 DOI: 10.1002/gcc.20576] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/02/2023] Open
Abstract
We have previously localized a cervical cancer tumor suppressor gene to a 300 kb interval of 11q13. Analysis of candidate genes revealed loss of expression of cystatin E/M, a lysosomal cysteine protease inhibitor, in 6 cervical cancer cell lines and 9 of 11 primary cervical tumors. Examination of the three exons in four cervical cancer cell lines, 19 primary tumors, and 21 normal controls revealed homozygous deletion of exon 1 sequences in one tumor. Point mutations were observed in six other tumors. Two tumors contained mutations at the consensus binding sites for cathepsin L, a lysosomal protease overexpressed in cervical cancer. Introduction of these two point mutations using site directed mutagenesis resulted in reduced binding of mutated cystatin E/M to cathepsin L. Although mutations were not observed in any cell lines, four cell lines and 12 of 18 tumors contained promoter hypermethylation. Reexpression of cystatin E/M was observed after 5'aza 2-deoxycytidiene and/or Trichostatin A treatment of cervical cancer cell lines, HeLa and SiHa, confirming promoter hypermethylation. Ectopic expression of cystatin E/M in these two cell lines resulted in growth suppression. There was also suppression of soft agar colony formation by HeLa cells expressing the cystatin E/M gene. Reexpression of cystatin E/M resulted in decreased intracellular and extracellular expression of cathepsin L. Overexpression of cathepsin L resulted in increased cell growth which was inhibited by the reintroduction of cystatin E/M. We conclude, therefore, that cystatin E/M is a cervical cancer suppressor gene and that the gene is inactivated by somatic mutations and promoter hypermethylation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mysore S Veena
- Department of Surgery, VAGLAHS/David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA, Los Angeles 90073, CA
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46
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Oler G, Camacho CP, Hojaij FC, Michaluart P, Riggins GJ, Cerutti JM. Gene expression profiling of papillary thyroid carcinoma identifies transcripts correlated with BRAF mutational status and lymph node metastasis. Clin Cancer Res 2008; 14:4735-42. [PMID: 18676742 DOI: 10.1158/1078-0432.ccr-07-4372] [Citation(s) in RCA: 67] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE To identify papillary thyroid carcinoma (PTC)-associated transcripts, we compared the gene expression profiles of three Serial Analysis of Gene Expression libraries generated from thyroid tumors and a normal thyroid tissue. EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN Selected transcripts were validated in a panel of 57 thyroid tumors using quantitative PCR (qPCR). An independent set of 71 paraffin-embedded sections was used for validation using immunohistochemical analysis. To determine if PTC-associated gene expression could predict lymph node involvement, a separate cohort of 130 primary PTC (54 metastatic and 76 nonmetastatic) was investigated. The BRAF(V600E) mutational status was compared with qPCR data to identify genes that might be regulated by abnormal BRAF/MEK/extracellular signal-regulated kinase signaling. RESULTS We identified and validated new PTC-associated transcripts. Three genes (CST6, CXCL14, and DHRS3) are strongly associated with PTC. Immunohistochemical analysis of CXCL14 confirmed the qPCR data and showed protein expression in PTC epithelial cells. We also observed that CST6, CXCL14, DHRS3, and SPP1 were associated with PTC lymph node metastasis, with CST6, CXCL14, and SPP1 being positively correlated with metastasis and DHRS3 being negatively correlated. Finally, we found a strong correlation between CST6 and CXCL14 expression and BRAF(V600E) mutational status, suggesting that these genes may be induced subsequently to BRAF activation and therefore may be downstream in the BRAF/MEK/extracellular signal-regulated kinase signaling pathway. CONCLUSION CST6, CXCL14, DHRS3, and SPP1 may play a role in PTC pathogenesis and progression and are possible molecular targets for PTC therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gisele Oler
- Division of Genetics, Federal University of São Paulo, Sãp Paulo, Brazil
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Invasion suppressor cystatin E/M (CST6): high-level cell type-specific expression in normal brain and epigenetic silencing in gliomas. J Transl Med 2008; 88:910-25. [PMID: 18607344 PMCID: PMC2574902 DOI: 10.1038/labinvest.2008.66] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
DNA hypermethylation-mediated gene silencing is a frequent and early contributor to aberrant cell growth and invasion in cancer. Malignant gliomas are the most common primary brain tumors in adults and the second most common tumor in children. Morbidity and mortality are high in glioma patients because tumors are resistant to treatment and are highly invasive into surrounding brain tissue rendering complete surgical resection impossible. Invasiveness is regulated by the interplay between secreted proteases (eg, cathepsins) and their endogenous inhibitors (cystatins). In our previous studies we identified cystatin E/M (CST6) as a frequent target of epigenetic silencing in glioma. Cystatin E/M is a potent inhibitor of cathepsin B, which is frequently overexpressed in glioma. Here, we study the expression of cystatin E/M in normal brain and show that it is highly and moderately expressed in oligodendrocytes and astrocytes, respectively, but not in neurons. Consistent with this, the CST6 promoter is hypomethylated in all normal samples using methylation-specific PCR, bisulfite genomic sequencing, and pyrosequencing. In contrast, 78% of 28 primary brain tumors demonstrated reduced/absent cystatin E/M expression using a tissue microarray and this reduced expression correlated with CST6 promoter hypermethylation. Interestingly, CST6 was expressed in neural stem cells (NSC) and markedly induced upon differentiation, whereas a glioma tumor initiating cell (TIC) line was completely blocked for CST6 expression by promoter methylation. Analysis of primary pediatric brain tumor-derived lines also showed CST6 downregulation and methylation in nearly 100% of 12 cases. Finally, ectopic expression of cystatin E/M in glioma lines reduced cell motility and invasion. These results demonstrate that epigenetic silencing of CST6 is frequent in adult and pediatric brain tumors and occurs in TICs, which are thought to give rise to the tumor. CST6 methylation may therefore represent a novel prognostic marker and therapeutic target specifically altered in TICs.
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Ekström U, Wallin H, Lorenzo J, Holmqvist B, Abrahamson M, Avilés FX. Internalization of cystatin C in human cell lines. FEBS J 2008; 275:4571-82. [PMID: 18699780 PMCID: PMC7163943 DOI: 10.1111/j.1742-4658.2008.06600.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Altered protease activity is considered important for tumour invasion and metastasis, processes in which the cysteine proteases cathepsin B and L are involved. Their natural inhibitor cystatin C is a secreted protein, suggesting that it functions to control extracellular protease activity. Because cystatins added to cell cultures can inhibit polio, herpes simplex and coronavirus replication, which are intracellular processes, the internalization and intracellular regulation of cysteine proteases by cystatin C should be considered. The extension, mechanism and biological importance of this hypothetical process are unknown. We investigated whether internalization of cystatin C occurs in a set of human cell lines. Demonstrated by flow cytometry and confocal microscopy, A‐431, MCF‐7, MDA‐MB‐453, MDA‐MB‐468 and Capan‐1 cells internalized fluorophore‐conjugated cystatin C when exposed to physiological concentrations (1 μm). During cystatin C incubation, intracellular cystatin C increased after 5 min and accumulated for at least 6 h, reaching four to six times the baseline level. Western blotting showed that the internalized inhibitor was not degraded. It was functionally intact and extracts of cells exposed to cystatin C showed a higher capacity to inhibit papain and cathepsin B than control cells (decrease in enzyme activity of 34% and 37%, respectively). The uptake of labelled cystatin C was inhibited by unlabelled inhibitor, suggesting a specific pathway for the internalization. We conclude that the cysteine protease inhibitor cystatin C is internalized in significant quantities in various cancer cell lines. This is a potentially important physiological phenomenon not previously described for this group of inhibitors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ulf Ekström
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Lund University, Sweden
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Hosokawa M, Kashiwaya K, Eguchi H, Ohigashi H, Ishikawa O, Furihata M, Shinomura Y, Imai K, Nakamura Y, Nakagawa H. Over-expression of cysteine proteinase inhibitor cystatin 6 promotes pancreatic cancer growth. Cancer Sci 2008; 99:1626-32. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1349-7006.2008.00869.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/20/2023] Open
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Ai L, Kim WJ, Kim TY, Fields CR, Massoll NA, Robertson KD, Brown KD. Epigenetic silencing of the tumor suppressor cystatin M occurs during breast cancer progression. Cancer Res 2007; 66:7899-909. [PMID: 16912163 DOI: 10.1158/0008-5472.can-06-0576] [Citation(s) in RCA: 72] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Cystatin M is a secreted inhibitor of lysosomal cysteine proteases. Several lines of evidence indicate that cystatin M is a tumor suppressor important in breast malignancy; however, the mechanism(s) that leads to inactivation of cystatin M during cancer progression is unknown. Inspection of the human cystatin M locus uncovered a large and dense CpG island within the 5' region of this gene (termed CST6). Analysis of cultured human breast tumor lines indicated that cystatin M expression is either undetectable or in low abundance in several lines; however, enhanced gene expression was measured in cells cultured on the DNA demethylating agent 5-aza-2'-deoxycytidine (5-aza-dC). Increased cystatin M expression does not correlate with a cytotoxic response to 5-aza-dC; rather, various molecular approaches indicated that the CST6 gene was aberrantly methylated in these tumor lines as well as in primary breast tumors. Moreover, 60% (12 of 20) of primary tumors analyzed displayed CST6 hypermethylation, indicating that this aberrant characteristic is common in breast malignancies. Finally, preinvasive and invasive breast tumor cells were microdissected from nine archival breast cancer specimens. Of the five tumors displaying CST6 gene methylation, four tumors displayed methylation in both ductal carcinoma in situ and invasive breast carcinoma lesions and reduced expression of cystatin M in these tumors was confirmed by immunohistochemistry. In summary, this study establishes that the tumor suppressor cystatin M is a novel target for epigenetic silencing during mammary tumorigenesis and that this aberrant event can occur before development of invasive breast cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lingbao Ai
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology and University of Florida Shands Cancer Center Program in Cancer Genetics, Epigenetics, and Tumor Virology, University of Florida College of Medicine, Gainesville, FL 32610, USA
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