Hypnosis upregulates the expression of immune-related genes in lymphocytes

Physiological Correlates of Hypnotizability: Hypnotic Behaviour and Prognostic Role in Medicine

Studies in the field of experimental hypnosis highlighted the role of hypnotizability in the physiological variability of the general population. It is associated, in fact, with a few differences which are observable in the ordinary state of consciousness and in the absence of suggestions. The aim of the present scoping review is summarizing them and indicate their relevance to the neural mechanisms of hypnosis and to the prognosis and treatment of a few medical conditions. Individuals with high, medium and low hypnotizability scores display different cerebral functional differences-i.e., functional equivalence between imagery and perception/action, excitability of the motor cortex, interoceptive accuracy-possibly related to brain structural and functional characteristics, and different control of blood supply at peripheral and cerebral level, likely due to different availability of endothelial nitric oxide. These differences are reviewed to support the idea of their participation in hypnotic behaviour and to indicate their prognostic and therapeutic usefulness in a few medical conditions.

Is hypnotic assessment relevant to neurology?

Studies conducted in healthy subjects have clearly shown that different hypnotic susceptibility, which is measured by scales, is associated with different functional equivalence between imagery and perception/action (FE), cortical excitability, and information processing. Of note, physiological differences among individuals with high (highs), medium (mediums), and low hypnotizability scores (lows) have been observed in the ordinary state of consciousness, thus independently from the induction of the hypnotic state, and in the absence of specific suggestions. The potential role of hypnotic assessment and its relevance to neurological diseases have not been fully explored. While current knowledge and therapies allow a better survival rate, there is a constant need to optimize rehabilitation treatments and quality of life. The aim of this paper is to provide an overview of hypnotizability-related features and, specifically, to discuss the hypothesis that the stronger FE, the different mode of information processing, and the greater proneness to control pain and the activity of the immune system observed in individuals with medium-to-high hypnotizability scores have potential applications to neurology. Current evidence of the outcome of treatments based on hypnotic induction and suggestions administration is not consistent, mainly owing to the small sample size in clinical trials and inadequate control groups. We propose that hypnotic assessment may be feasible in clinical routine and give additional cues into the treatment and rehabilitation of neurological diseases.

Hypnotic enhancement of slow-wave sleep increases sleep-associated hormone secretion and reduces sympathetic predominance in healthy humans

Sleep is important for normal brain and body functioning, and for this, slow-wave sleep (SWS), the deepest stage of sleep, is assumed to be especially relevant. Previous studies employing methods to enhance SWS have focused on central nervous components of this sleep stage. However, SWS is also characterized by specific changes in the body periphery, which are essential mediators of the health-benefitting effects of sleep. Here we show that enhancing SWS in healthy humans using hypnotic suggestions profoundly affects the two major systems linking the brain with peripheral body functions, i.e., the endocrine and the autonomic nervous systems (ANS). Specifically, hypnotic suggestions presented at the beginning of a 90-min afternoon nap to promote subsequent SWS strongly increased the release of growth hormone (GH) and, to a lesser extent, of prolactin and aldosterone, and shifted the sympathovagal balance towards reduced sympathetic predominance. Thus, the hypnotic suggestions induced a whole-body pattern characteristic of natural SWS. Given that the affected parameters regulate fundamental physiological functions like metabolism, cardiovascular activity, and immunity, our findings open up a wide range of potential applications of hypnotic SWS enhancement, in addition to advancing our knowledge on the physiology of human SWS.

The hypnotic enhancement of slow wave sleep, the deepest stage of sleep, goes beyond the central nervous system, causing changes at the level of the endocrine and the autonomic nervous systems.

Expression of Toll-Like Receptors in peripheral blood mononuclear cells and response to cognitive-behavioral therapy in major depressive disorder

In recent years, increased attention has been paid to the inflammatory mechanisms of major depressive disorder (MDD). The aim of the present study was to investigate pro-inflammatory pathways related to the "leaky gut" hypothesis of MDD, which is based on the putative intestinal translocation of Gram-negative bacteria and a subsequent abnormal immune response mediated by the Toll-Like Receptor-4 (TLR-4) pathway. 50 patients with first-episode MDD and 30 healthy control subjects participated in the study. Real-time quantitative PCR was used to measure TLR-4 and TLR-2 RNA from peripheral mononuclear blood cells, as well as the expression of NF-κβ, a key transcription factor of the pro-inflammatory response. TLR-4 protein expression was determined by using flow cytometry. TLR-2 served as a control molecule. Low-grade inflammation was characterized by the measurement of interleukin-6 (IL-6) and C-reactive protein (CRP). Bacterial translocation was investigated by the measurement of the 16S rRNA subunit (16S rDNA) of intestinal microbiota in the blood plasma of the participants. We performed these analyses before (t1) and after (t2) cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) in MDD. The healthy control subjects were also assessed two times. We found significantly elevated expressions of all three markers (TLR-4 RNA and protein, NF-κβ RNA) and 16S rDNA in MDD at t1 relative to healthy control subjects. These markers showed a significant decrease during CBT (t1>t2 in MDD). We observed no between-group differences and changes in the case of TLR-2. Greater reduction of pro-inflammatory markers during CBT was associated with more pronounced clinical improvement. IL-6 and CRP displayed a moderately elevated level in MDD and did not change during CBT. In conclusion, TLR-4 signaling is up-regulated in newly diagnosed patients with MDD, which may be related to bacterial translocation or to the presence of various damage-associated molecular patterns. Clinical improvement during psychotherapy is associated with decreased expression of pro-inflammatory markers.