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Li B, Li W, Liu C, Yang P, Li J. Diverse diets and low-fiber, low-tannin foraging preferences: Foraging criteria of Tibetan macaques ( Macaca thibetana) at low altitude in Huangshan. Ecol Evol 2022; 12:e9338. [PMID: 36225833 PMCID: PMC9532248 DOI: 10.1002/ece3.9338] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/07/2022] [Revised: 08/15/2022] [Accepted: 09/05/2022] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Nutrient composition and food availability determine food choices and foraging strategies of animals, while altitude and geographical location affect species distribution and food availability. Tibetan macaques (Macaca thibetana) have sophisticated foraging strategies as the largest species in Macaca. They are important in understanding the ecological evolution of the entire genus. However, the mechanism of food selection in Tibetan macaques at low altitudes remains unclear. In this study, we researched a wild Tibetan macaques group (Tianhu Mountain Group, 29 individuals) living in a low‐altitude area around Mt. Huangshan, Anhui Province, China. We used instantaneous scan sampling to observe these macaques' foraging behavior from September 2020 to August 2021. We recorded the dietary composition and food availability, compared the nutrient content of staple food and non‐food items, and analyzed the role of key nutrients in food selection. We found that Tibetan macaques forage on 111 plants belonging to 93 genera and 55 families. The food types included fruits (52.5%), mature leaves (17.0%), bamboo shoots (14.4%), young leaves (6.3%), flowers (4.5%), others (2.1%), stems (1.9%), and tender shoots (1.3%). Tibetan macaques forage for a maximum of 76 plant species during spring. However, dietary diversity was highest during summer (H′ = 3.052). Monthly fruit consumption was positively correlated with food availability. Staple foods are lower in fiber, tannin, and water than non‐foods. In addition, the time spent foraging for specific foods was negatively correlated with the fiber and tannin content of the food. The results showed that Tibetan macaques' foraging plant species and food types were diverse, and their foraging strategies varied seasonally. Our findings confirmed the effect of nutrients on food choice in Tibetan macaques. We highlighted the important role of fiber and tannin in their food choices and suggested that the foraging behavior of Tibetan macaques is highly flexible and adaptive.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bowen Li
- School of Resources and Environmental Engineering, Anhui UniversityHefeiChina,International Collaborative Research Center for Huangshan Biodiversity and Tibetan Macaque Behavioral EcologyAnhui UniversityHefeiChina
| | - Wenbo Li
- School of Resources and Environmental Engineering, Anhui UniversityHefeiChina,International Collaborative Research Center for Huangshan Biodiversity and Tibetan Macaque Behavioral EcologyAnhui UniversityHefeiChina,Key Laboratory of Animal Ecology and Conservation BiologyInstitute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of SciencesBeijingChina
| | - Chao Liu
- School of Resources and Environmental Engineering, Anhui UniversityHefeiChina,International Collaborative Research Center for Huangshan Biodiversity and Tibetan Macaque Behavioral EcologyAnhui UniversityHefeiChina
| | - Peipei Yang
- School of Resources and Environmental Engineering, Anhui UniversityHefeiChina,International Collaborative Research Center for Huangshan Biodiversity and Tibetan Macaque Behavioral EcologyAnhui UniversityHefeiChina
| | - Jinhua Li
- School of Resources and Environmental Engineering, Anhui UniversityHefeiChina,International Collaborative Research Center for Huangshan Biodiversity and Tibetan Macaque Behavioral EcologyAnhui UniversityHefeiChina,School of Life Sciences, Hefei Normal UniversityHefeiChina
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Li WB, Yang PP, Xia DP, Huffman MA, Li M, Li JH. Ecotourism Disturbance on an Endemic Endangered Primate in the Huangshan Man and the Biosphere Reserve of China: A Way to Move Forward. BIOLOGY 2022; 11:biology11071042. [PMID: 36101421 PMCID: PMC9312286 DOI: 10.3390/biology11071042] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/10/2022] [Revised: 07/07/2022] [Accepted: 07/07/2022] [Indexed: 12/05/2022]
Abstract
Simple Summary How to realize the sustainability of economic development and animal protection is a significant problem faced by Man and the Biosphere reserves. Although there are many theoretical frameworks, there is still a lack of supportive ecological evidence. This study analyzed aspects of the local human population, economic growth, number of tourists, and ticket income data of Huangshan Man and Biosphere Reserve (HMBR) as well as population and distribution changes in the flagship species (Tibetan macaque) in HMBR over a 30 year period. We found that after 30 years of implementing a sustainable development strategy in HMBR, the local economy and the population of Tibetan macaques have increased simultaneously. With economic growth, more funds for protection have been invested, improving the local environment significantly and expanding the existing distribution of the Tibetan macaque population. This study provides strong evidence for the sustainable development of Man and Biosphere reserves. We propose that economic and wildlife population growth and distribution area measures constitute a critical standard for the evaluation of sustainable development. Abstract The primary purpose of the Man and the Biosphere Program is the sustainable development of both the economy and nature conservation activities. Although the effectiveness of eco-tourism to reach this goal has been proposed, due to the lack of long-term monitoring data and a model species, there has been no obvious mechanism to evaluate the effectiveness of this policy. This study explored the effectiveness of the sustainable development policy of HMBR based on 30 years data of monitoring the Tibetan macaque, local human population, visitors, and annual ecotourism income in Huangshan by estimating species habitat suitability and the impact of ecotourism. The results showed increases in the income for the local human population, the number of visitors, and annual eco-tourism. Simultaneously, the reserve’s Tibetan macaque population size and suitable habitat areas increased. The macaques expanded their habitat to the low-altitude buffer zone (400–800 m), an area with lower eco-tourism disturbance. Scenic spots had a significant negative impact on habitat suitability (the substantially increased contributions of scenic spots from 0.71% to 32.88%). Our results and methods provide a suitable evaluation framework for monitoring the sustainable development and effectiveness of eco-tourism and wildlife conservation in Man and the Biosphere reserves.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wen-Bo Li
- Key Laboratory of Animal Ecology and Conservation Biology, Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China;
- International Collaborative Research Center for Huangshan Biodiversity and Tibetan Macaque Behavioral Ecology, School of Resources and Environmental Engineering, Anhui University, No. 111, Jiulong Road, Hefei 230601, China;
| | - Pei-Pei Yang
- International Collaborative Research Center for Huangshan Biodiversity and Tibetan Macaque Behavioral Ecology, School of Resources and Environmental Engineering, Anhui University, No. 111, Jiulong Road, Hefei 230601, China;
| | - Dong-Po Xia
- International Collaborative Research Center for Huangshan Biodiversity and Tibetan Macaque Behavioral Ecology, School of Life Sciences, Anhui University, No. 111, Jiulong Road, Hefei 230601, China;
| | - Michael A. Huffman
- Wildlife Research Center, Inuyama Campus, Kyoto University, Kyoto 606-8501, Japan;
| | - Ming Li
- Key Laboratory of Animal Ecology and Conservation Biology, Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China;
- Correspondence: (M.L.); (J.-H.L.)
| | - Jin-Hua Li
- International Collaborative Research Center for Huangshan Biodiversity and Tibetan Macaque Behavioral Ecology, School of Resources and Environmental Engineering, Anhui University, No. 111, Jiulong Road, Hefei 230601, China;
- School of Life Sciences, Hefei Normal University, No. 1688, Lianhua Road, Hefei 230601, China
- Correspondence: (M.L.); (J.-H.L.)
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Pebsworth PA, Huffman MA, Lambert JE, Young SL. Geophagy among nonhuman primates: A systematic review of current knowledge and suggestions for future directions. AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY 2018; 168 Suppl 67:164-194. [DOI: 10.1002/ajpa.23724] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/06/2018] [Revised: 08/26/2018] [Accepted: 08/27/2018] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Paula A. Pebsworth
- Animal Behaviour and Cognition Programme, National Institute of Advanced StudiesIndian Institute of Science Campus Bangalore India
- Department of AnthropologyThe University of Texas San Antonio Texas
| | - Michael A. Huffman
- Department of Behavior and EcologyPrimate Research Institute, Kyoto University Inuyama Japan
| | - Joanna E. Lambert
- Program in Environmental Studies, Department of Ecology and Evolutionary BiologyUniversity of Colorado Boulder Colorado
| | - Sera L. Young
- Department of Anthropology, Institute for Policy ResearchNorthwestern University Evanston Illinois
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Huang Z, Huang C, Tang C, Huang L, Tang H, Ma G, Zhou Q. Dietary adaptations of Assamese macaques (Macaca assamensis) in limestone forests in Southwest China. Am J Primatol 2014; 77:171-85. [DOI: 10.1002/ajp.22320] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/28/2014] [Accepted: 07/09/2014] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Zhonghao Huang
- School of Life Sciences; South China Normal University; Guangzhou China
- Guangxi Key Laboratory of Rare and Endangered Animal Ecology; Guangxi Normal University; Guilin China
| | - Chengming Huang
- National Zoological Museum; Institute of Zoology; Chinese Academy of Sciences; Beijing China
| | - Chuangbin Tang
- College of Forest Resources and Environment; Nanjing Forestry University; Nanjing China
| | - Libin Huang
- Guangxi Key Laboratory of Rare and Endangered Animal Ecology; Guangxi Normal University; Guilin China
| | - Huaxing Tang
- The Administration of Nonggang Nature Reserve; Chongzuo China
| | - Guangzhi Ma
- School of Life Sciences; South China Normal University; Guangzhou China
- Guangdong Institute of Science and Technology; Zhuhai China
| | - Qihai Zhou
- Guangxi Key Laboratory of Rare and Endangered Animal Ecology; Guangxi Normal University; Guilin China
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Ménard N, Motsch P, Delahaye A, Saintvanne A, Le Flohic G, Dupé S, Vallet D, Qarro M, Tattou MI, Pierre JS. Effect of habitat quality on diet flexibility in Barbary macaques. Am J Primatol 2014; 76:679-93. [DOI: 10.1002/ajp.22262] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/20/2013] [Revised: 01/10/2014] [Accepted: 01/12/2014] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Nelly Ménard
- UMR 6553, ECOBIO: Ecosystems, Biodiversity, Evolution; CNRS/University of Rennes 1, Biological Station of Paimpont; Paimpont France
| | - Peggy Motsch
- UMR 6553, ECOBIO: Ecosystems, Biodiversity, Evolution; CNRS/University of Rennes 1, Biological Station of Paimpont; Paimpont France
| | - Alexia Delahaye
- UMR 6553, ECOBIO: Ecosystems, Biodiversity, Evolution; CNRS/University of Rennes 1, Biological Station of Paimpont; Paimpont France
| | - Alice Saintvanne
- UMR 6553, ECOBIO: Ecosystems, Biodiversity, Evolution; CNRS/University of Rennes 1, Biological Station of Paimpont; Paimpont France
| | - Guillaume Le Flohic
- UMR 6553, ECOBIO: Ecosystems, Biodiversity, Evolution; CNRS/University of Rennes 1, Biological Station of Paimpont; Paimpont France
| | - Sandrine Dupé
- UMR 6553, ECOBIO: Ecosystems, Biodiversity, Evolution; CNRS/University of Rennes 1, Biological Station of Paimpont; Paimpont France
| | - Dominique Vallet
- UMR 6553, ECOBIO: Ecosystems, Biodiversity, Evolution; CNRS/University of Rennes 1, Biological Station of Paimpont; Paimpont France
| | - Mohamed Qarro
- Ecole Nationale Forestière d'Ingénieurs; Salé Rabat Morocco
| | | | - Jean-Sébastien Pierre
- UMR 6553, ECOBIO: Ecosystems, Biodiversity, Evolution; CNRS/University of Rennes 1; Rennes France
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Sha JCM, Hanya G. Temporal Food Resource Correlates to the Behavior and Ecology of Food-Enhanced Long-Tailed Macaques (Macaca fascicularis). MAMMAL STUDY 2013. [DOI: 10.3106/041.038.0305] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
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Weinstein KJ. Climatic and altitudinal influences on variation in macaca limb morphology. ANATOMY RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2011; 2011:714624. [PMID: 22567298 PMCID: PMC3335495 DOI: 10.1155/2011/714624] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/13/2011] [Revised: 05/04/2011] [Accepted: 08/09/2011] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
This study compares limb lengths and joint diameters in the skeletons of six macaque species (Macaca assamensis, M. fascicularis, M. fuscata, M. mulatta, M. nemestrina, and M. thibetana) from a broad range of habitats and climates in order to test whether ambient temperatures, latitude, and altitude influence interspecific variation in limb morphology in this widely dispersed genus. Analysis of variance, principal component analysis, and partial correlation analysis reveal that species from temperate latitudes and high elevations tend to have short limbs and large joint diameters for their sizes while species from tropical latitudes and low elevations tend to have long limbs and small joint diameters. Interspecific variations in intra- and interlimb length proportions also reflect phylogeny and subtle differences in locomotion. The results of this study suggest that climatic conditions are important factors among many ecological variables that influence limb morphology in this geographically widespread genus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karen J. Weinstein
- Department of Anthropology, Dickinson College, P.O. Box 1773, Carlisle, PA 17013, USA
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Tsuji Y, Sato K, Sato Y. The role of Japanese macaques (Macaca fuscata) as endozoochorous seed dispersers on Kinkazan Island, northern Japan. Mamm Biol 2011. [DOI: 10.1016/j.mambio.2011.01.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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XIANG ZF, HUO S, XIAO W. Male Allocare in Rhinopithecus bieti at Xiaochangdu, Tibet: Is It Related to Energetic Stress? Zool Res 2010; 31:189-97. [PMID: 20545009 DOI: 10.3724/sp.j.1141.2010.02189] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
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Shanahan M, So S, Compton SG, Corlett R. Fig-eating by vertebrate frugivores: a global review. Biol Rev Camb Philos Soc 2001; 76:529-72. [PMID: 11762492 DOI: 10.1017/s1464793101005760] [Citation(s) in RCA: 354] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
The consumption of figs (the fruit of Ficus spp.: Moraceae) by vertebrates is reviewed using data from the literature, unpublished accounts and new field data from Borneo and Hong Kong. Records of frugivory from over 75 countries are presented for 260 Ficus species (approximately 30% of described species). Explanations are presented for geographical and taxonomic gaps in the otherwise extensive literature. In addition to a small number of reptiles and fishes, 1274 bird and mammal species in 523 genera and 92 families are known to eat figs. In terms of the number of species and genera of fig-eaters and the number of fig species eaten we identify the avian families interacting most with Ficus to be Columbidae, Psittacidae, Pycnonotidae, Bucerotidae, Sturnidae and Lybiidae. Among mammals, the major fig-eating families are Pteropodidae, Cercopithecidae, Sciuridae, Phyllostomidae and Cebidae. We assess the role these and other frugivores play in Ficus seed dispersal and identify fig-specialists. In most, but not all, cases fig specialists provide effective seed dispersal services to the Ficus species on which they feed. The diversity of fig-eaters is explained with respect to fig design and nutrient content, phenology of fig ripening and the diversity of fig presentation. Whilst at a gross level there exists considerable overlap between birds, arboreal mammals and fruit bats with regard to the fig species they consume, closer analysis, based on evidence from across the tropics, suggests that discrete guilds of Ficus species differentially attract subsets of sympatric frugivore communities. This dispersal guild structure is determined by interspecific differences in fig design and presentation. Throughout our examination of the fig-frugivore interaction we consider phylogenetic factors and make comparisons between large-scale biogeographical regions. Our dataset supports previous claims that Ficus is the most important plant genus for tropical frugivores. We explore the concept of figs as keystone resources and suggest criteria for future investigations of their dietary importance. Finally, fully referenced lists of frugivores recorded at each Ficus species and of Ficus species in the diet of each frugivore are presented as online appendices. In situations where ecological information is incomplete or its retrieval is impractical, this valuable resource will assist conservationists in evaluating the role of figs or their frugivores in tropical forest sites.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Shanahan
- Centre for Biodiversity & Conservation, School of Biology, University of Leeds, UK.
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Krishnamani R, Mahaney WC. Geophagy among primates: adaptive significance and ecological consequences. Anim Behav 2000; 59:899-915. [PMID: 10860518 DOI: 10.1006/anbe.1999.1376] [Citation(s) in RCA: 139] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
We review geophagy, or soil ingestion, in primates. This behaviour is widespread and is presumed to be important to health and nutrition. Primates may engage in geophagy for one or a combination of reasons. Here we present, and make a preliminary assessment of, six nonexclusive hypotheses that may contribute to the prevalence of geophagy. Four hypotheses relate to geophagy in alleviating gastrointestinal disorders or upsets: (1) soils adsorb toxins such as phenolics and secondary metabolites; (2) soil ingestion has an antacid action and adjusts the gut pH; (3) soils act as an antidiarrhoeal agent; and (4) soils counteract the effects of endoparasites. Two hypotheses pertain to geophagy in supplementing minerals and/or elements: (5) soils supplement nutrient-poor diets and (6) soils provide extra iron at high altitudes. In addition to these hypotheses, geophagy may satiate olfactory senses, serve as a famine food and finally may have no function at all. We draw together a large body of information from various sources to assess these hypotheses and suggest some tests to understand the function of geophagy. Our review suggests that primates engage in geophagy for a number of reasons that are nonexclusive. We conclude that mineral supplementation, adsorption of toxins, treatment of diarrhoea and pH adjustment of the gut seem the most plausible reasons why primates engage in geophagy. Copyright 2000 The Association for the Study of Animal Behaviour.
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Affiliation(s)
- R Krishnamani
- Division of Conservation Biology, Salim Ali Centre for Ornithology and Natural History
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Abstract
Data on intergroup-interactions (I-I) were collected in 5 seasonally provisioned groups (A, B, D, D1, and E) of Tibetan macaques (Macaca thibetana) at Mt. Emei in three 70-day periods between 1991 April-June (P1), September-November (P2), December-1992 February (P3). The I-I were categorized as forewarning made by high-ranking males (including Branch Shaking and/or Loud Calls), long-distance interactions in space (specified by changes in their foraging movements), and close encounters (with Affinitive Behavior, Male's Herding Female, Sexual Interaction, Severe Conflict, Adult Male-male Conflict, Opportunistic Advance and Retreat, etc. performed by different age-sex classes). From periods P1 to P3, the I-I rate decreased with reduction in population density as a positive correlate of food clumpedness or the number of potential feeders along a pedestrian trail. On the other hand, from the birth season (BS, represented by P1 and P3) to the mating season (MS, represented by P2) the dominance relation between groups, which produced a winner and a loser in the encounters, became obscure; the proportion of close encounters in the I-I increased; the asymmetry (local groups over intruders) of forewarning signals disappeared; the rate of branch shaking decreased; and sometimes intergroup cohesion appeared. Considering that sexual interactions also occurred between the encountering groups, above changes in intergroup behaviors may be explained with a model of the way in which the competition for food (exclusion) and the sexual attractiveness between opposite sexes were in a dynamic equilibrium among the groups, with the former outweighing the latter in the BS, and conversely in the MS. Females made 93% of severe conflicts, which occurred in 18% of close encounters. Groups fissioned in the recent past shared the same home range, and showed the highest hostility to each other by females. In conspicuous contrast with females' great interest in intergroup food/range competition, adult male-male conflicts that were normally without body contact occurred in 66% of close encounters; high-ranking male herding of females, which is typical in baboons, appeared in 83% of close encounters, and showed no changes with season and sexual weight-dimorphism; peripheral juvenile and subadult males were the main performers of the affinitive behaviors, opportunistic advance and retreat, and guarding at the border. In brief, all males appeared to "sit on the fence" at the border, likely holding out hope of gaining the favor of females both within and outside the group. Thus, females and males attempted to maximize reproductive values in different ways, just as expected by Darwin-Trivers' theory of sexual selection. In addition, group fission was observed in the largest and highest-ranking group for two times (both in the MS) when its size increased to a certain level, and the mother group kept their dominant position in size and rank among the groups that might encounter, suggesting that fission takes a way of discarding the "superfluous part" in order to balance the cost of competition for food and mates within a group, and the benefit of cooperation to access the resources for animals in the mother group.
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Affiliation(s)
- Q K Zhao
- Kunming Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Yunnan, People's Republic of China
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Zhao QK. Seasonal changes in body weight ofMacaca thibetana at Mt. Emei, China. Am J Primatol 1994; 32:223-226. [DOI: 10.1002/ajp.1350320309] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/02/1993] [Revised: 09/03/1993] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
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