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Rapuc S, Pierrat V, Marchand-Martin L, Benhammou V, Kaminski M, Ancel PY, Twilhaar ES. The interrelatedness of cognitive abilities in very preterm and full-term born children at 5.5 years of age: a psychometric network analysis approach. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 2024; 65:18-30. [PMID: 37165961 DOI: 10.1111/jcpp.13816] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 03/14/2023] [Indexed: 05/12/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Very preterm (VP) birth is associated with a considerable risk for cognitive impairment, putting children at a disadvantage in academic and everyday life. Despite lower cognitive ability on the group level, there are large individual differences among VP born children. Contemporary theories define intelligence as a network of reciprocally connected cognitive abilities. Therefore, intelligence was studied as a network of interrelated abilities to provide insight into interindividual differences. We described and compared the network of cognitive abilities, including strength of interrelations between and the relative importance of abilities, of VP and full-term (FT) born children and VP children with below-average and average-high intelligence at 5.5 years. METHODS A total of 2,253 VP children from the EPIPAGE-2 cohort and 578 FT controls who participated in the 5.5-year-follow-up were eligible for inclusion. The WPPSI-IV was used to measure verbal comprehension, visuospatial abilities, fluid reasoning, working memory, and processing speed. Psychometric network analysis was applied to analyse the data. RESULTS Cognitive abilities were densely and positively interconnected in all networks, but the strength of connections differed between networks. The cognitive network of VP children was more strongly interconnected than that of FT children. Furthermore, VP children with below average IQ had a more strongly connected network than VP children with average-high IQ. Contrary to our expectations, working memory had the least central role in all networks. CONCLUSIONS In line with the ability differentiation hypothesis, children with higher levels of cognitive ability had a less interconnected and more specialised cognitive structure. Composite intelligence scores may therefore mask domain-specific deficits, particularly in children at risk for cognitive impairments (e.g., VP born children), even when general intelligence is unimpaired. In children with strongly and densely connected networks, domain-specific deficits may have a larger overall impact, resulting in lower intelligence levels.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Rapuc
- Université Paris Cité, CRESS, Obstetrical Perinatal and Pediatric Epidemiology Research Team (EPOPé), INSERM, INRAE, Paris, France
| | - V Pierrat
- Université Paris Cité, CRESS, Obstetrical Perinatal and Pediatric Epidemiology Research Team (EPOPé), INSERM, INRAE, Paris, France
- Department of Neonatology, Centre Hospitalier Intercommunal Créteil, Créteil, France
| | - L Marchand-Martin
- Université Paris Cité, CRESS, Obstetrical Perinatal and Pediatric Epidemiology Research Team (EPOPé), INSERM, INRAE, Paris, France
| | - V Benhammou
- Université Paris Cité, CRESS, Obstetrical Perinatal and Pediatric Epidemiology Research Team (EPOPé), INSERM, INRAE, Paris, France
| | - M Kaminski
- Université Paris Cité, CRESS, Obstetrical Perinatal and Pediatric Epidemiology Research Team (EPOPé), INSERM, INRAE, Paris, France
| | - P-Y Ancel
- Université Paris Cité, CRESS, Obstetrical Perinatal and Pediatric Epidemiology Research Team (EPOPé), INSERM, INRAE, Paris, France
- Assistance Publique-Hôpitaux de Paris, Clinical Investigation Centre P1419, Paris, France
| | - E S Twilhaar
- Université Paris Cité, CRESS, Obstetrical Perinatal and Pediatric Epidemiology Research Team (EPOPé), INSERM, INRAE, Paris, France
- Department of Psychology, University of Warwick, Coventry, UK
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Hagemann D, Ihmels M, Bast N, Neubauer AB, Schankin A, Schubert AL. Fluid Intelligence Is (Much) More than Working Memory Capacity: An Experimental Analysis. J Intell 2023; 11:jintelligence11040070. [PMID: 37103255 PMCID: PMC10141465 DOI: 10.3390/jintelligence11040070] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2022] [Revised: 03/21/2023] [Accepted: 03/31/2023] [Indexed: 04/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Empirical evidence suggests a great positive association between measures of fluid intelligence and working memory capacity, which implied to some researchers that fluid intelligence is little more than working memory. Because this conclusion is mostly based on correlation analysis, a causal relationship between fluid intelligence and working memory has not yet been established. The aim of the present study was therefore to provide an experimental analysis of this relationship. In a first study, 60 participants worked on items of the Advanced Progressive Matrices (APM) while simultaneously engaging in one of four secondary tasks to load specific components of the working memory system. There was a diminishing effect of loading the central executive on the APM performance, which could explain 15% of the variance in the APM score. In a second study, we used the same experimental manipulations but replaced the dependent variable with complex working memory span tasks from three different domains. There was also a diminishing effect of the experimental manipulation on span task performance, which could now explain 40% of the variance. These findings suggest a causal effect of working memory functioning on fluid intelligence test performance, but they also imply that factors other than working memory functioning must contribute to fluid intelligence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dirk Hagemann
- Institute of Psychology, University of Heidelberg, 69117 Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Max Ihmels
- Department of Psychology, University of Tübingen, 72076 Tübingen, Germany
| | - Nico Bast
- Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, Psychosomatics and Psychotherapy, University Hospital Frankfurt, Goethe-University, 60590 Frankfurt am Main, Germany
| | - Andreas B. Neubauer
- Department of Education and Human Development, DIPF Leibniz Institute for Research and Information in Education, 60323 Frankfurt am Main, Germany
| | - Andrea Schankin
- Institute of Business Psychology, FOM University of Applied Sciences, 45127 Essen, Germany
- TECO/Pervasive Computing Systems, Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, 76185 Karlsruhe, Germany
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An integrated Neo-Piagetian/Neo-Eriksonian development model II: RAF, qubit, and supra-theory modeling. CURRENT PSYCHOLOGY 2023. [DOI: 10.1007/s12144-022-04224-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
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Demetriou A, Spanoudis GC, Greiff S, Makris N, Panaoura R, Kazi S. Changing priorities in the development of cognitive competence and school learning: A general theory. Front Psychol 2022; 13:954971. [PMID: 36248549 PMCID: PMC9557948 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.954971] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/27/2022] [Accepted: 09/02/2022] [Indexed: 12/04/2022] Open
Abstract
This paper summarizes a theory of cognitive development and elaborates on its educational implications. The theory postulates that development occurs in cycles along multiple fronts. Cognitive competence in each cycle comprises a different profile of executive, inferential, and awareness processes, reflecting changes in developmental priorities in each cycle. Changes reflect varying needs in representing, understanding, and interacting with the world. Interaction control dominates episodic representation in infancy; attention control and perceptual awareness dominate in realistic representations in preschool; inferential control and awareness dominate rule-based representation in primary school; truth and validity control and precise self-evaluation dominate in principle-based thought in adolescence. We demonstrate that the best predictors of school learning in each cycle are the cycle's cognitive priorities. Also learning in different domains, e.g., language and mathematics, depends on an interaction between the general cognitive processes dominating in each cycle and the state of the representational systems associated with each domain. When a representational system is deficient, specific learning difficulties may emerge, e.g., dyslexia and dyscalculia. We also discuss the educational implications for evaluation and learning at school.
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Feraco T, Cona G. Differentiation of general and specific abilities in intelligence. A bifactor study of age and gender differentiation in 8- to 19-year-olds. INTELLIGENCE 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.intell.2022.101669] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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Pásztor A, Magyar A, Pásztor-Kovács A, Rausch A. Online Assessment and Game-Based Development of Inductive Reasoning. J Intell 2022; 10:59. [PMID: 35997415 PMCID: PMC9397073 DOI: 10.3390/jintelligence10030059] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2022] [Revised: 08/04/2022] [Accepted: 08/16/2022] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
The aims of the study were (1) to develop a domain-general computer-based assessment tool for inductive reasoning and to empirically test the theoretical models of Klauer and Christou and Papageorgiou; and (2) to develop an online game to foster inductive reasoning through mathematical content and to investigate its effectiveness. The sample was drawn from fifth-grade students for the assessment (N = 267) along with the intervention study (N = 122). The online figurative test consisted of 54 items: nine items were developed for each of the six inductive reasoning processes. The digital game-based training program included 120 learning tasks embedded in mathematical content with differential feedback and instructional support. The test had good psychometric properties regarding reliabilities, means, and standard deviations. Confirmatory factor analyses revealed that the six processes of inductive reasoning and the three latent factors of Similarity, Dissimilarity, and Integration could be empirically confirmed. The training program was effective in general (corrected effect size = .38); however, the process of cross-classification was not developed significantly. Findings could contribute to a more detailed understanding of the structure and the modifiability of inductive reasoning processes and could reveal further insights into the nature of fluid intelligence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Attila Pásztor
- Institute of Education, University of Szeged, 6722 Szeged, Hungary
- MTA—SZTE Research Group on the Development of Competencies, 6722 Szeged, Hungary
- MTA—SZTE Digital Learning Technologies Research Group, 6722 Szeged, Hungary
| | - Andrea Magyar
- MTA—SZTE Digital Learning Technologies Research Group, 6722 Szeged, Hungary
| | | | - Attila Rausch
- Institute of Education, Eötvös Loránd University, 1075 Budapest, Hungary
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Guo D, Wang Y, Liao Y, Li J, Zhang X, Gao Z, Shen M, He J. Development of information integration in the visual working memory of preschoolers. Child Dev 2022; 93:1793-1803. [PMID: 35726966 DOI: 10.1111/cdev.13820] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Visual working memory (WM) plays a pivotal role in integrating fragments into meaningful units, but no study has addressed how visual WM integration takes place in children. The current study examined whether WM integration emerges once preschoolers master Gestalt cue and can retain two representations in WM (automatic integration hypothesis), or still needs time to mature (maturation-of-integration hypothesis). Four experiments (N = 168, 81 females, 4- to 6-year-olds, Chinese, in Hangzhou, China, from 2016.10 to 2021.11) were conducted. Although 4-year-olds can retain two objects in WM and benefit from Gestalt cues in simultaneous display (Cohen's ds >1.00), they failed when memory arrays were presented sequentially. Meanwhile, 5- and 6-year-olds consistently demonstrated WM integration ability (all Cohen's ds >0.69), supporting the maturation-of-integration hypothesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dong Guo
- Department of Psychology and Behavioral Sciences, Zhejiang University, Zhejiang, China.,Institute of Brain and Psychological Sciences, Sichuan Normal University, Chengdu, China
| | - Yudan Wang
- Department of Psychology and Behavioral Sciences, Zhejiang University, Zhejiang, China.,Publicity and Education Department, Palace Museum, Beijing, China
| | - Yifan Liao
- Department of Psychology and Behavioral Sciences, Zhejiang University, Zhejiang, China
| | - Jiaofeng Li
- Department of Psychology and Behavioral Sciences, Zhejiang University, Zhejiang, China
| | | | - Zaifeng Gao
- Department of Psychology and Behavioral Sciences, Zhejiang University, Zhejiang, China
| | - Mowei Shen
- Department of Psychology and Behavioral Sciences, Zhejiang University, Zhejiang, China
| | - Jie He
- Department of Psychology and Behavioral Sciences, Zhejiang University, Zhejiang, China
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Demetriou A, Mougi A, Spanoudis G, Makris N. Changing developmental priorities between executive functions, working memory, and reasoning in the formation of g from 6 to 12 years. INTELLIGENCE 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.intell.2021.101602] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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Chrysochoou E, Vivas AB, Cana L, Demetriou A. The bilingual effect on cognitive development: not an executive function advantage, but a differentiation of mental abilities. JOURNAL OF COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY 2021. [DOI: 10.1080/20445911.2021.2002875] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Elisavet Chrysochoou
- School of Psychology, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Thessaloniki, Greece
| | - Ana B. Vivas
- Psychology Department, CITY College, University of York Europe Campus, Thessaloniki, Greece
| | - Likanë Cana
- Psychology Department, the University of Sheffield International Faculty, City College, Thessaloniki, Greece
| | - Andreas Demetriou
- Department of Psychology, University of Nicosia, Nicosia, Cyprus
- Cyprus, Academy of Sciences, Letters, and Arts, Nicosia, Cyprus
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Developmental reconstruction of cognitive ability: Interactions between executive, cognizance, and reasoning processes in childhood. COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cogdev.2021.101124] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
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Demetriou A, Liakos A, Kizilyürek N. How Wisdom Emerges from Intellectual Development: A Developmental/Historical Theory for Raising Mandelas. J Intell 2021; 9:jintelligence9030047. [PMID: 34564295 PMCID: PMC8482133 DOI: 10.3390/jintelligence9030047] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/07/2021] [Revised: 09/13/2021] [Accepted: 09/13/2021] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
This paper invokes cognitive developmental theory as a means for preparing citizens to deal with and resolve conflicts within or across nations. We take the centuries-old Greek–Turkish dispute as an example. We first outline a theory of intellectual development postulating that mental changes emerge in response to changing developmental priorities in successive life periods, namely, interaction control in infancy, attention control and representational awareness in preschool, inferential control and cognitive management in primary school, and advanced forms of reasoning and self-evaluation in adolescence. Based on this model, we outline a control theory of wisdom postulating that different aspects of wisdom emerge during development as different levels of control of relations with others: trust and care for others in infancy, taking the other’s perspective, reflectivity, and empathy in preschool, rationality and understanding the rules underlying individual and group interactions in primary school, and understanding the general principles of societal operation explaining the differences in approach and interest between groups in adolescence and early adulthood. We also outline the educational implications of this theory for the education of citizens by capitalizing on intellectual strengths at successive developmental periods to comprehensively understand the world and to act prudently when dealing with interpersonal and social or national conflict. Finally, the paper discusses the political constraints and implications of this theory. This is the first attempt to derive wisdom from the development of cognitive and personality processes from infancy through early adulthood and to connect it to serious world problems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andreas Demetriou
- Department of Psychology, University of Nicosia, Nicosia 1700, Cyprus
- Cyprus Academy of Science, Letters, and Arts, Nicosia 1700, Cyprus
- Correspondence:
| | - Antonis Liakos
- Faculty of History and Archaeology, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, 15784 Athens, Greece;
| | - Niyazi Kizilyürek
- Department of Turkish and Middle Eastern Studies, University of Cyprus, Kallipoleos 75, Nicosia 1678, Cyprus;
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The future of intelligence: The central meaning-making unit of intelligence in the mind, the brain, and artificial intelligence. INTELLIGENCE 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.intell.2021.101562] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
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Abstract
We focus on the theory of abstraction proposed by the target article. We suggest that abstraction varies at different levels of learning, cognitive development, or cognitive ability. We argue that this theory does not specify how abstraction is done at each of these levels. Because of these weaknesses, the theory cannot explicate how individuals differ in mental time travel at different phases of life or different levels of cognitive ability.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andreas Demetriou
- Cyprus Academy of Sciences, Letters, and Arts, University of Nicosia, Cyprus, 1700Nicosia, Cyprus.
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Must O, Must A. No decline in the principle-based thought of 9-year-old schoolchildren between 1991 and 2001. INTELLIGENCE 2020. [DOI: 10.1016/j.intell.2020.101455] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
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Spanoudis G, Demetriou A. Mapping Mind-Brain Development: Towards a Comprehensive Theory. J Intell 2020; 8:E19. [PMID: 32357452 PMCID: PMC7713015 DOI: 10.3390/jintelligence8020019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/20/2020] [Revised: 04/13/2020] [Accepted: 04/20/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The relations between the developing mind and developing brain are explored. We outline a theory of intellectual development postulating that the mind comprises four systems of processes (domain-specific, attention and working memory, reasoning, and cognizance) developing in four cycles (episodic, realistic, rule-based, and principle-based representations, emerging at birth, 2, 6, and 11 years, respectively), with two phases in each. Changes in reasoning relate to processing efficiency in the first phase and working memory in the second phase. Awareness of mental processes is recycled with the changes in each cycle and drives their integration into the representational unit of the next cycle. Brain research shows that each type of processes is served by specialized brain networks. Domain-specific processes are rooted in sensory cortices; working memory processes are mainly rooted in hippocampal, parietal, and prefrontal cortices; abstraction and alignment processes are rooted in parietal, frontal, and prefrontal and medial cortices. Information entering these networks is available to awareness processes. Brain networks change along the four cycles, in precision, connectivity, and brain rhythms. Principles of mind-brain interaction are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- George Spanoudis
- Psychology Department, University of Cyprus, 1678 Nicosia, Cyprus
| | - Andreas Demetriou
- Department of Psychology, University of Nicosia, 1700 Nicosia, Cyprus;
- Cyprus Academy of Science, Letters, and Arts, 1700 Nicosia, Cyprus
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Cognitive ability, cognitive self-awareness, and school performance: From childhood to adolescence. INTELLIGENCE 2020. [DOI: 10.1016/j.intell.2020.101432] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
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Kazi S, Kazali E, Makris N, Spanoudis G, Demetriou A. Cognizance in cognitive development: A longitudinal study. COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT 2019. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cogdev.2019.100805] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
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Demetriou A, Kazi S, Spanoudis G, Makris N. Predicting school performance from cognitive ability, self-representation, and personality from primary school to senior high school. INTELLIGENCE 2019. [DOI: 10.1016/j.intell.2019.101381] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
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Demetriou A. Making a Difference in and Beyond the Ivory Tower: Advance a Theory, Start a University, and Transform a Country’s Education. PERSPECTIVES ON PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE 2019; 14:74-80. [DOI: 10.1177/1745691618804181] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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Demetriou A, Spanoudis G, Žebec MS, Andreou M, Golino H, Kazi S. Mind-Personality Relations from Childhood to Early Adulthood. J Intell 2018; 6:E51. [PMID: 31162478 PMCID: PMC6480795 DOI: 10.3390/jintelligence6040051] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/03/2018] [Revised: 08/22/2018] [Accepted: 11/20/2018] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
We present three studies which investigated the relations between cognition and personality from 7 to 20 years of age. All three studies showed that general cognitive ability and the general factor of personality are significantly related throughout this age span. This relation was expressed in several ways across studies. The first investigated developmental relations between three reasoning domains (inductive, deductive, and scientific) and Eysenck's four personality dimensions in a longitudinal-sequential design where 260 participants received the cognitive tests three times, and the personality test two times, covering the span from 9 to 16 years. It was found that initial social likeability significantly shapes developmental momentum in cognition and vice versa, especially in the 9- to 11-year period. The second study involved 438 participants from 7 to 17 years, tested twice on attention control, working memory, reasoning in different domains, and once by a Big Five Factors inventory. Extending the findings of the first, this study showed that progression in reasoning is affected negatively by conscientiousness and positively by openness, on top of attention control and working memory influences. The third study tested the relations between reasoning in several domains, the ability to evaluate one's own cognitive performance, self-representation about the reasoning, the Big Five, and several aspects of emotional intelligence, from 9 to 20 years of age (N = 247). Network, hierarchical network, and structural equation modeling showed that cognition and personality are mediated by the ability of self-knowing. Emotional intelligence was not an autonomous dimension. All dimensions except emotional intelligence influenced academic performance. A developmental model for mind-personality relations is proposed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andreas Demetriou
- Department of Psychology, University of Nicosia, Nicosia 1700, Cyprus.
| | - George Spanoudis
- Department of Psychology, University of Cyprus, Nicosia 1678, Cyprus.
| | - Mislav Stjepan Žebec
- Department of Psychology, Croatian Studies University of Zagreb, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia.
| | - Maria Andreou
- Department of Psychology, University of Cyprus, Nicosia 1678, Cyprus.
| | - Hudson Golino
- Department of Psychology, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA 22903, USA.
| | - Smaragda Kazi
- Department of Psychology, Panteion University of Social Sciences, 17671 Athens, Greece.
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Demetriou A, Makris N, Spanoudis G. In Defense of a Developmental Theory of Intelligence: Response to the Commentators. Hum Dev 2018. [DOI: 10.1159/000489840] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
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