Elevated MCU Expression by CaMKIIδB Limits Pathological Cardiac Remodeling

Perfluorooctane sulfonate induces ferroptosis-dependent non-alcoholic steatohepatitis via autophagy-MCU-caused mitochondrial calcium overload and MCU-ACSL4 interaction

The incidence of nonalcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH) is related with perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS), yet the mechanism remains ill-defined. Mounting evidence suggests that ferroptosis plays a crucial role in the initiation of NASH. In this study, we used mice and human hepatocytes L-02 to investigate the role of ferroptosis in PFOS-induced NASH and the effect and molecular mechanism of PFOS on liver ferroptosis. We found here that PFOS caused NASH in mice, and lipid accumulation and inflammatory response in the L-02 cells. PFOS induced hepatic ferroptosis in vivo and in vitro, as evidenced by the decrease in glutathione peroxidase 4 (GPX4), and the increases in cytosolic iron, acyl-CoA synthetase long-chain family member 4 (ACSL4) and lipid peroxidation. In the PFOS-treated cells, the increases in the inflammatory factors and lipid contents were reversed by ferroptosis inhibitor. PFOS-induced ferroptosis was relieved by autophagy inhibitor. The expression of mitochondrial calcium uniporter (MCU) was accelerated by PFOS, leading to subsequent mitochondrial calcium accumulation, and inhibiting autophagy reversed the increase in MCU. Inhibiting mitochondrial calcium reversed the variations in GPX4 and cytosolic iron, without influencing the change in ACSL4, induced by PFOS. MCU interacted with ACSL4 and the siRNA against MCU reversed the changes in ACSL4，GPX4 and cytosolic iron systemically. This study put forward the involvement of hepatic ferroptosis in PFOS-induced NASH and identified MCU as the mediator of the autophagy-dependent ferroptosis.

MCU inhibition protects against intestinal ischemia‒reperfusion by inhibiting Drp1-dependent mitochondrial fission

Intestinal ischemia‒reperfusion (IIR) injury is a common complication of surgery, but clear molecular insights and valuable therapeutic targets are lacking. Mitochondrial calcium overload is an early sign of various diseases and is considered a vital factor in ischemia‒reperfusion injury. The mitochondrial calcium uniporter (MCU), which is located on the inner mitochondrial membrane, is the primary mediator of calcium ion entry into the mitochondria. However, the specific mechanism of MCU in IIR injury remains to be clarified. In this study, we generated an IIR model using C57BL/6 mice and Caco-2 cells and found increases in the calcium levels and MCU expression following IIR injury. The specific inhibition of MCU markedly attenuated IIR injury. Moreover, MCU knockdown alleviates mitochondrial dysfunction by reducing oxidative stress and apoptosis. Mechanistically, MCU knockdown substantially reduced the translocation of Drp1 and thus its binding to Fis1 receptors, resulting in decreased mitochondrial fission. Taken together, our findings demonstrated that MCU is a novel upstream regulator of Drp1 in ischemia‒reperfusion and represents a predictive and therapeutic target for IIR.

LncRNA CCRR maintains Ca2+ homeostasis against myocardial infarction through the FTO-SERCA2a pathway

Cardiac conduction regulatory RNA (CCRR) has been documented as an antiarrhythmic lncRNA in our earlier investigation. This study aimed to evaluate the effects of CCRR on SERCA2a and the associated Ca2+ homeostasis in myocardial infarction (MI). Overexpression of CCRR via AAV9-mediated delivery not only partially reversed ischemia-induced contractile dysfunction but also alleviated abnormal Ca2+ homeostasis and reduced the heightened methylation level of SERCA2a following MI. These effects were also observed in CCRR over-expressing transgenic mice. A conserved sequence domain of CCRR mimicked the protective function observed with the full length. Furthermore, silencing CCRR in healthy mice led to intracellular Ca2+ overloading of cardiomyocytes. CCRR increased SERCA2a protein stability by upregulating FTO expression. The direct interaction between CCRR and FTO protein was characterized by RNA-binding protein immunoprecipitation (RIP) analysis and RNA pulldown experiments. Activation of NFATc3 was identified as an upstream mechanism responsible for CCRR downregulation in MI. This study demonstrates that CCRR is a protective lncRNA that acts by maintaining the function of FTO, thereby reducing the m6A RNA methylation level of SERCA2a, ultimately preserving calcium homeostasis for myocardial contractile function in MI. Therefore, CCRR may be considered a promising therapeutic strategy with a beneficial role in cardiac pathology.

Pharmacological Effects of Botanical Drugs on Myocardial Metabolism in Chronic Heart Failure

Although there have been significant advances in the treatment of heart failure in recent years, chronic heart failure remains a leading cause of cardiovascular disease-related death. Many studies have found that targeted cardiac metabolic remodeling has good potential for the treatment of heart failure. However, most of the drugs that increase cardiac energy are still in the theoretical or testing stage. Some research has found that botanical drugs not only increase myocardial energy metabolism through multiple targets but also have the potential to restore the balance of myocardial substrate metabolism. In this review, we summarized the mechanisms by which botanical drugs (the active ingredients/formulas/Chinese patent medicines) improve substrate utilization and promote myocardial energy metabolism by activating AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK), peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors (PPARs) and other related targets. At the same time, some potential protective effects of botanical drugs on myocardium, such as alleviating oxidative stress and dysbiosis signaling, caused by metabolic disorders, were briefly discussed.

Mechanical stress induced mitochondrial dysfunction in cardiovascular diseases: Novel mechanisms and therapeutic targets

Cardiovascular diseases (CVDs) are the leading cause of mortality worldwide. Others and our studies have shown that mechanical stresses (forces) including shear stress and cyclic stretch, occur in various pathological conditions, play significant roles in the development and progression of CVDs. Mitochondria regulate the physiological processes of cardiac and vascular cells mainly through adenosine triphosphate (ATP) production, calcium flux and redox control while promote cell death through electron transport complex (ETC) related cellular stress response. Mounting evidence reveal that mechanical stress-induced mitochondrial dysfunction plays a vital role in the pathogenesis of many CVDs including heart failure and atherosclerosis. This review summarized mitochondrial functions in cardiovascular system under physiological mechanical stress and mitochondrial dysfunction under pathological mechanical stress in CVDs (graphical abstract). The study of mitochondrial dysfunction under mechanical stress can further our understanding of the underlying mechanisms, identify potential therapeutic targets, and aid the development of novel treatments of CVDs.

Mitochondrial Ca2+ Uniporter-Dependent Energetic Dysfunction Drives Hypertrophy in Heart Failure

The role of the mitochondrial calcium uniporter (MCU) in energy dysfunction and hypertrophy in heart failure (HF) remains unknown. In angiotensin II (ANGII)-induced hypertrophic cardiac cells we have shown that hypertrophic cells overexpress MCU and present bioenergetic dysfunction. However, by silencing MCU, cell hypertrophy and mitochondrial dysfunction are prevented by blocking mitochondrial calcium overload, increase mitochondrial reactive oxygen species, and activation of nuclear factor kappa B-dependent hypertrophic and proinflammatory signaling. Moreover, we identified a calcium/calmodulin-independent protein kinase II/cyclic adenosine monophosphate response element-binding protein signaling modulating MCU upregulation by ANGII. Additionally, we found upregulation of MCU in ANGII-induced left ventricular HF in mice, and in the LV of HF patients, which was correlated with pathological remodeling. Following left ventricular assist device implantation, MCU expression decreased, suggesting tissue plasticity to modulate MCU expression.

Endurance exercise preconditioning alleviates ferroptosis induced by doxorubicin-induced cardiotoxicity through mitochondrial superoxide-dependent AMPKα2 activation

Doxorubicin-induced cardiotoxicity (DIC) adversely impacts patients' long-term health and quality of life. Its underlying mechanism is complex, involving regulatory cell death mechanisms, such as ferroptosis and autophagy. Moreover, it is a challenge faced by patients undergoing cardiac rehabilitation. Endurance exercise (E-Exe) preconditioning effectively counters DIC injury, potentially through the adenosine monophosphate-activated protein kinase (AMPK) pathway. However, detailed studies on this process's mechanisms are scarce. Here, E-Exe preconditioning and DIC models were established using mice and primary cultured adult mouse cardiomyocytes (PAMCs). Akin to ferrostatin-1 (ferroptosis inhibitor), rapamycin (autophagic inducer), and MitoTEMPO (mitochondrial free-radical scavenger), E-Exe preconditioning effectively alleviated Fe2+ accumulation and oxidative stress and improved energy metabolism and mitochondrial dysfunction in DIC injury, as demonstrated by multifunctional, enzymatic, and morphological indices. However, erastin (ferroptosis inducer), 3-methyladenine (autophagic inhibitor), adenovirus-mediated AMPKα2 downregulation, and AMPKα2 inhibition by compound C significantly diminished these effects, both in vivo and in vitro. The results suggest a non-traditional mechanism where E-Exe preconditioning, under mild mitochondrial reactive oxygen species generation, upregulates and phosphorylates AMPKα2, thereby enhancing mitochondrial complex I activity, activating adaptive autophagy, and improving myocardial tolerance to DIC injury. Overall, this study highlighted the pivotal role of mitochondria in myocardial DIC-induced ferroptosis and shows how E-Exe preconditioning activated AMPKα2 against myocardial DIC injury. This suggests that E-Exe preconditioning could be a viable strategy for patients undergoing cardiac rehabilitation.

Structure-based design of non-hypertrophic apelin receptor modulator

Apelin is a key hormone in cardiovascular homeostasis that activates the apelin receptor (APLNR), which is regarded as a promising therapeutic target for cardiovascular disease. However, adverse effects through the β-arrestin pathway limit its pharmacological use. Here, we report cryoelectron microscopy (cryo-EM) structures of APLNR-Gi1 complexes bound to three agonists with divergent signaling profiles. Combined with functional assays, we have identified "twin hotspots" in APLNR as key determinants for signaling bias, guiding the rational design of two exclusive G-protein-biased agonists WN353 and WN561. Cryo-EM structures of WN353- and WN561-stimulated APLNR-G protein complexes further confirm that the designed ligands adopt the desired poses. Pathophysiological experiments have provided evidence that WN561 demonstrates superior therapeutic effects against cardiac hypertrophy and reduced adverse effects compared with the established APLNR agonists. In summary, our designed APLNR modulator may facilitate the development of next-generation cardiovascular medications.

OTUD1 promotes isoprenaline- and myocardial infarction-induced heart failure by targeting PDE5A in cardiomyocytes

Heart failure represents a major cause of death worldwide. Recent research has emphasized the potential role of protein ubiquitination/deubiquitination protein modification in cardiac pathology. Here, we investigate the role of the ovarian tumor deubiquitinase 1 (OTUD1) in isoprenaline (ISO)- and myocardial infarction (MI)-induced heart failure and its molecular mechanism. OTUD1 protein levels were raised markedly in murine cardiomyocytes after MI and ISO treatment. OTUD1 deficiency attenuated myocardial hypertrophy and cardiac dysfunction induced by ISO infusion or MI operation. In vitro, OTUD1 knockdown in neonatal rat ventricular myocytes (NRVMs) attenuated ISO-induced injuries, while OTUD1 overexpression aggravated the pathological changes. Mechanistically, LC-MS/MS and Co-IP studies showed that OTUD1 bound directly to the GAF1 and PDEase domains of PDE5A. OTUD1 was found to reverse K48 ubiquitin chain in PDE5A through cysteine at position 320 of OTUD1, preventing its proteasomal degradation. PDE5A could inactivates the cGMP-PKG-SERCA2a signaling axis which dysregulate the calcium handling in cardiomyocytes, and leading to the cardiomyocyte injuries. In conclusion, OTUD1 promotes heart failure by deubiquitinating and stabilizing PDE5A in cardiomyocytes. These findings have identified PDE5A as a new target of OTUD1 and emphasize the potential of OTUD1 as a target for treating heart failure.

Tongyang Huoxue decoction (TYHX) ameliorating hypoxia/reoxygenation-induced disequilibrium of calcium homeostasis via regulating β-tubulin in rabbit sinoatrial node cells

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

β-tubulin is a skeletal protein of sinoatrial node cells (SANCs) that maintains the physiological structure of SANCs and inhibits calcium overload. Tongyang Huoxue decoction (TYHX) is widely used to treat sick sinus syndrome (SSS) owing to its effects on calcium channels regulation and SANCs protection.

AIM OF THE STUDY

This study focuses on the mechanism of TYHX in improving the hypoxia/reoxygenation (H/R)-induced disequilibrium of calcium homeostasis in SANCs via regulating β-tubulin.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Real-Time PCR (RT-PCR) and Western Blot were adopted to detect the mRNA and protein expression levels of calcium channel regulatory molecules. Laser confocal method was employed to examine β-tubulin structure and fluorescence expression levels in SANCs, as well as calcium wave and calcium release levels.

RESULTS

It was found that the fluorescence expression level decreased and the β-tubulin structure of SANCs was damaged after H/R treatment. The mRNA and protein expression levels of SERCA2a/CaV1.3/NCX and β-tubulin decreased, while the mRNA and protein expression of RyR2 increased. The results of calcium wave and calcium transient experiments showed that the fluorescence expression level of Ca2+ increased and calcium overload occurred in SANCs. After treatment with TYHX, the mRNA and protein expression levels of SERCA2a/CaV1.3/NCX and β-tubulin increased, while the mRNA and protein expression levels of RyR2 decreased and the cell structure was restored. Interestingly, the regulation of TYHX on calcium homeostasis was further enhanced after Ad-β-tubulin treatment and counteracted after siRNA-β-tubulin treatment. These results suggest that TYHX could maintain calcium homeostasis via regulating β-tubulin, thus protecting against H/R-induced SANCs injury, which may be a new target for SSS treatment.

Regulation of Na+-K+-ATPase leads to disturbances of isoproterenol-induced cardiac dysfunction via interference of Ca2+-dependent cardiac metabolism

Reductions in Na+-K+-ATPase (NKA) activity and expression are often observed in the progress of various reason-induced heart failure (HF). However, NKA α1 mutation or knockdown cannot cause spontaneous heart disease. Whether the abnormal NKA α1 directly contributes to HF pathogenesis remains unknown. Here, we challenge NKA α1+/- mice with isoproterenol to evaluate the role of NKA α1 haploinsufficiency in isoproterenol (ISO)-induced cardiac dysfunction. Genetic knockdown of NKA α1 accelerated ISO-induced cardiac cell hypertrophy, heart fibrosis, and dysfunction. Further studies revealed decreased Krebs cycle, fatty acid oxidation, and mitochondrial OXPHOS in the hearts of NKA α1+/- mice challenged with ISO. In ISO-treated conditions, inhibition of NKA elevated cytosolic Na+, further reduced mitochondrial Ca2+ via mNCE, and then finally down-regulated cardiac cell energy metabolism. In addition, a supplement of DRm217 alleviated ISO-induced heart dysfunction, mitigated cardiac remodeling, and improved cytosolic Na+ and Ca2+ elevation and mitochondrial Ca2+ depression in the NKA α1+/- mouse model. The findings suggest that targeting NKA and mitochondria Ca2+ could be a promising strategy in the treatment of heart disease.

JOSD2 mediates isoprenaline-induced heart failure by deubiquitinating CaMKIIδ in cardiomyocytes

Prolonged stimulation of β-adrenergic receptor (β-AR) can lead to sympathetic overactivity that causes pathologic cardiac hypertrophy and fibrosis, ultimately resulting in heart failure. Recent studies suggest that abnormal protein ubiquitylation may contribute to the pathogenesis of cardiac hypertrophy and remodeling. In this study, we demonstrated that deficiency of a deubiquitinase, Josephin domain-containing protein 2 (JOSD2), ameliorated isoprenaline (ISO)- and myocardial infarction (MI)-induced cardiac hypertrophy, fibrosis, and dysfunction both in vitro and in vivo. Conversely, JOSD2 overexpression aggravated ISO-induced cardiac pathology. Through comprehensive mass spectrometry analysis, we identified that JOSD2 interacts with Calcium-calmodulin-dependent protein kinase II (CaMKIIδ). JOSD2 directly hydrolyzes the K63-linked polyubiquitin chains on CaMKIIδ, thereby increasing the phosphorylation of CaMKIIδ and resulting in calcium mishandling, hypertrophy, and fibrosis in cardiomyocytes. In vivo experiments showed that the cardiac remodeling induced by JOSD2 overexpression could be reversed by the CaMKIIδ inhibitor KN-93. In conclusion, our study highlights the role of JOSD2 in mediating ISO-induced cardiac remodeling through the regulation of CaMKIIδ ubiquitination, and suggests its potential as a therapeutic target for combating the disease. Please check and confirm that the authors and their respective affiliations have been correctly identified and amend if necessary. All have been checked.

The purified extract of steamed Panax ginseng protects cardiomyocyte from ischemic injury via caveolin-1 phosphorylation-mediating calcium influx

Background

Caveolin-1, the scaffolding protein of cholesterol-rich invaginations, plays an important role in store-operated Ca2+ influx and its phosphorylation at Tyr14 (p-caveolin-1) is vital to mobilize protection against myocardial ischemia (MI) injury. SOCE, comprising STIM1, ORAI1 and TRPC1, contributes to intracellular Ca2+ ([Ca2+]i) accumulation in cardiomyocytes. The purified extract of steamed Panax ginseng (EPG) attenuated [Ca2+]i overload against MI injury. Thus, the aim of this study was to investigate the possibility of EPG affecting p-caveolin-1 to further mediate SOCE/[Ca2+]i against MI injury in neonatal rat cardiomyocytes and a rat model.

Methods

PP2, an inhibitor of p-caveolin-1, was used. Cell viability, [Ca2+]i concentration were analyzed in cardiomyocytes. In rats, myocardial infarct size, pathological damages, apoptosis and cardiac fibrosis were evaluated, p-caveolin-1 and STIM1 were detected by immunofluorescence, and the levels of caveolin-1, STIM1, ORAI1 and TRPC1 were determined by RT-PCR and Western blot. And, release of LDH, cTnI and BNP was measured.

Results

EPG, ginsenosides accounting for 57.96%, suppressed release of LDH, cTnI and BNP, and protected cardiomyocytes by inhibiting Ca2+ influx. And, EPG significantly relieved myocardial infarct size, cardiac apoptosis, fibrosis, and ultrastructure abnormality. Moreover, EPG negatively regulated SOCE via increasing p-caveolin-1 protein, decreasing ORAI1 mRNA and protein levels of ORAI1, TRPC1 and STIM1. More importantly, inhibition of the p-caveolin-1 significantly suppressed all of the above cardioprotection of EPG.

Conclusions

Caveolin-1 phosphorylation is involved in the protective effects of EPG against MI injury via increasing p-caveolin-1 to negatively regulate SOCE/[Ca2+]i.

CaMKII, 'jack of all trades' in inflammation during cardiac ischemia/reperfusion injury

Myocardial infarction and revascularization cause cardiac ischemia/reperfusion (I/R) injury featuring cardiomyocyte death and inflammation. The Ca2+/calmodulin dependent protein kinase II (CaMKII) family are serine/ threonine protein kinases that are involved in I/R injury. CaMKII exists in four different isoforms, α, β, γ, and δ. In the heart, CaMKII-δ is the predominant isoform，with multiple splicing variants, such as δB, δC and δ9. During I/R, elevated intracellular Ca2+ concentrations and reactive oxygen species activate CaMKII. In this review, we summarized the regulation and function of CaMKII in multiple cell types including cardiomyocytes, endothelial cells, and macrophages during I/R. We conclude that CaMKII mediates inflammation in the microenvironment of the myocardium, resulting in cell dysfunction, elevated inflammation, and cell death. However, different CaMKII-δ variants exhibit distinct or even opposite functions. Therefore, reagents/approaches that selectively target specific CaMKII isoforms and variants are needed for evaluating and counteracting the exact role of CaMKII in I/R injury and developing effective treatments against I/R injury.

Glucose fluctuations aggravate myocardial fibrosis via activating the CaMKII/Stat3 signaling in type 2 diabtetes

BACKGROUND

Glucose fluctuations (GF) are a risk factor for cardiovascular complications associated with type 2 diabetes. However, there is a lack of adequate research on the effect of GF on myocardial fibrosis and the underlying mechanisms in type 2 diabetes. This study aimed to investigate the impact of glucose fluctuations on myocardial fibrosis and explore the potential mechanisms in type 2 diabetes.

METHODS

Sprague Dawley (SD) rats were randomly divided into three groups: the control (Con) group, the type 2 diabetic (DM) group and the glucose fluctuations (GF) group. The type 2 diabetic rat model was established using a high-fat diet combined with low-dose streptozotocin injection and the GF model was induced by using staggered glucose and insulin injections daily. After eight weeks, echocardiography was used to assess the cardiac function of the three groups. Hematoxylin-eosin and Masson staining were utilized to evaluate the degree of pathological damage and fibrosis. Meanwhile, a neonatal rat cardiac fibroblast model with GF was established. Western and immunofluorescence were used to find the specific mechanism of myocardial fibrosis caused by GF.

RESULTS

Compared with rats in the Con and the DM group, cardiac function in the GF group showed significant impairments. Additionally, the results showed that GF aggravated myocardial fibrosis in vitro and in vivo. Moreover, Ca2+/calmodulin‑dependent protein kinase II (CaMKII) was activated by phosphorylation, prompting an increase in phosphorylation of signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 (Stat3) and induced nuclear translocation. Pretreatment with KN-93 (a CaMKII inhibitor) blocked GF-induced Stat3 activation and significantly suppressed myocardial fibrosis.

CONCLUSIONS

Glucose fluctuations exacerbate myocardial fibrosis by triggering the CaMKII/Stat3 pathway in type 2 diabetes.

Regulation of mitochondrial calcium uniporter expression and calcium-dependent cell signaling by lncRNA Tug1 in cardiomyocytes

Cardiomyocyte calcium homeostasis is a tightly regulated process. The mitochondrial calcium uniporter (MCU) complex can buffer elevated cytosolic Ca2+ levels and consists of pore-forming proteins including MCU, and various regulatory proteins such as mitochondrial calcium uptake proteins 1 and 2 (MICU1/2). The stoichiometry of these proteins influences the sensitivity to Ca2+ and the activity of the complex. However, the factors that regulate their gene expression remain incompletely understood. Long noncoding RNAs (lncRNAs) regulate gene expression through various mechanisms, and we recently found that the lncRNA Tug1 increased the expression of Mcu and associated genes. To further explore this, we performed antisense LNA knockdown of Tug1 (Tug1 KD) in H9c2 rat cardiomyocytes. Tug1 KD increased MCU protein expression, yet pyruvate dehydrogenase dephosphorylation, which is indicative of mitochondrial Ca2+ uptake, was not enhanced. However, RNA-seq revealed that Tug1 KD increased Mcu along with differential expression of >1,000 genes including many related to Ca2+ regulation pathways in the heart. To understand the effect of this on Ca2+ signaling, we measured phosphorylation of Ca2+/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase II (CaMKII) and its downstream target cAMP Response Element-Binding protein (CREB), a transcription factor known to drive Mcu gene expression. In response to a Ca2+ stimulus, the increase in CaMKII and CREB phosphorylation was attenuated by Tug1 KD. Inhibition of CaMKII, but not CREB, partially prevented the Tug1 KD-mediated increase in Mcu. Together, these data suggest that Tug1 modulates MCU expression via a mechanism involving CaMKII and regulates cardiomyocyte Ca2+ signaling, which could have important implications for cardiac function.NEW & NOTEWORTHY Calcium is essential for signaling, excitation contraction, and energy homeostasis in the heart. Despite this, molecular regulators of these processes are not completely understood. We report that knockdown of lncRNA Tug1 alters the calcium handling transcriptome and increases mitochondrial calcium uniporter expression via a mechanism involving CaMKII. As overexpression of MCU is known to be protective against pathological cardiac remodeling, targeting Tug1 may be a potential strategy for treating cardiovascular disease.

Polysaccharide of Lactobacillus casei SB27 reduced colon cancer cell prognosis through mitochondrial damage by upregulation of HINT2

AIMS

Colorectal cancer (CRC) is one of the most common malignant tumors worldwide. This study aimed to explore the effects of Polysaccharide of Lactobacillus casei SB27 in colon cancer and its possible mechanisms.

METHODS

Colon cancer was induced by giving dextran sulfate sodium and Azoxymethane. Uman Colon Cancer Cell Line (HCT)-116 cells were used to vitro model in this experiment.

RESULTS

Polysaccharide of L. casei SB27 reduced colon cancer in azoxymethane-dextran sulfate sodium (AOM+DSS)-induced mice. Polysaccharide of L. casei SB27 reduced colon cancer prognosis in vitro model. Polysaccharide of L. casei SB27 reduced short chain fatty acids by Bacillus coli. Polysaccharide of L. casei promoted mitochondrial damage by Calcium ion entry. Polysaccharide of L. casei induced histidine nucleotide binding protein 2/mitochondrial calcium uniporter (HINT2/MCU) signaling pathway. Immunocoprecipitation (IP) showed that HINT2 protein interlinked MCU protein. Polysaccharide of L. casei suppressed HINT2 ubiquitination. The regulation of HINT2 affected the effects of L. casei polysaccharide on colon cancer prognosis and mitochondrial damage by Calcium ion entry in vitro model.

CONCLUSION

In conclusion, the present report demonstrated that polysaccharide of L. casei SB27 reduced colon cancer cell prognosis through mitochondrial damage by upregulation of HINT2. Polysaccharide of L. casei SB27 might be used for colon cancer treatment and could be helpful for personalized treatment.

Regulation of Smooth Muscle Cell Proliferation by Mitochondrial Ca2+ in Type 2 Diabetes

Type 2 diabetes (T2D) is associated with increased risk of atherosclerotic vascular disease due to excessive vascular smooth muscle cell (VSMC) proliferation. Here, we investigated the role of mitochondrial dysfunction and Ca2+ levels in VSMC proliferation in T2D. VSMCs were isolated from normoglycemic and T2D-like mice induced by diet. The effects of mitochondrial Ca2+ uptake were studied using mice with selectively inhibited mitochondrial Ca2+/calmodulin-dependent kinase II (mtCaMKII) in VSMCs. Mitochondrial transition pore (mPTP) was blocked using ER-000444793. VSMCs from T2D compared to normoglycemic mice exhibited increased proliferation and baseline cytosolic Ca2+ levels ([Ca2+]cyto). T2D cells displayed lower endoplasmic reticulum Ca2+ levels, reduced mitochondrial Ca2+ entry, and increased Ca2+ leakage through the mPTP. Mitochondrial and cytosolic Ca2+ transients were diminished in T2D cells upon platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF) administration. Inhibiting mitochondrial Ca2+ uptake or the mPTP reduced VSMC proliferation in T2D, but had contrasting effects on [Ca2+]cyto. In T2D VSMCs, enhanced activation of Erk1/2 and its upstream regulators was observed, driven by elevated [Ca2+]cyto. Inhibiting mtCaMKII worsened the Ca2+ imbalance by blocking mitochondrial Ca2+ entry, leading to further increases in [Ca2+]cyto and Erk1/2 hyperactivation. Under these conditions, PDGF had no effect on VSMC proliferation. Inhibiting Ca2+-dependent signaling in the cytosol reduced excessive Erk1/2 activation and VSMC proliferation. Our findings suggest that altered Ca2+ handling drives enhanced VSMC proliferation in T2D, with mitochondrial dysfunction contributing to this process.

Distinct effects of cardiac mitochondrial calcium uniporter inactivation via EMRE deletion in the short and long term

Transport of Ca2+ into mitochondria is thought to stimulate the production of ATP, a critical process in the heart's fight or flight response, but excess Ca2+ can trigger cell death. The mitochondrial Ca2+ uniporter complex is the primary route of Ca2+ transport into mitochondria, in which the channel-forming protein MCU and the regulatory protein EMRE are essential for activity. In previous studies, chronic Mcu or Emre deletion differed from acute cardiac Mcu deletion in response to adrenergic stimulation and ischemia/reperfusion (I/R) injury, despite equivalent inactivation of rapid mitochondrial Ca2+ uptake. To explore this discrepancy between chronic and acute loss of uniporter activity, we compared short-term and long-term Emre deletion using a novel conditional cardiac-specific, tamoxifen-inducible mouse model. After short-term Emre deletion (3 weeks post-tamoxifen) in adult mice, cardiac mitochondria were unable to take up Ca2+, had lower basal mitochondrial Ca2+ levels, and displayed attenuated Ca2+-induced ATP production and mPTP opening. Moreover, short-term EMRE loss blunted cardiac response to adrenergic stimulation and improved maintenance of cardiac function in an ex vivo I/R model. We then tested whether the long-term absence of EMRE (3 months post-tamoxifen) in adulthood would lead to distinct outcomes. After long-term Emre deletion, mitochondrial Ca2+ handling and function, as well as cardiac response to adrenergic stimulation, were similarly impaired as in short-term deletion. Interestingly, however, protection from I/R injury was lost in the long-term. These data suggest that several months without uniporter function are insufficient to restore bioenergetic response but are sufficient to restore susceptibility to I/R.

Silicate Ions Derived from Calcium Silicate Extract Decelerate Ang II-Induced Cardiac Remodeling

BACKGROUND

Pathological cardiac hypertrophy is one of the main activators of heart failure. Currently, no drug can completely reverse or inhibit the development of pathological cardiac hypertrophy. To this end, we proposed a silicate ion therapy based on extract derived from calcium silicate (CS) bioceramics for the treatment of angiotensin II (Ang II) induced cardiac hypertrophy.

METHODS

In this study, the Ang II induced cardiac hypertrophy mouse model was established, and the silicate ion extract was injected to mice intravenously. The cardiac function was evaluated by using a high-resolution Vevo 3100 small animal ultrasound imaging system. Wheat germ Agglutinin, Fluo4-AM staining and immunofluorescent staining was conducted to assess the cardiac hypertrophy, intracellular calcium and angiogenesis of heart tissue, respectively.

RESULTS

The in vitro results showed that silicate ions could inhibit the cell size of cardiomyocytes, reduce cardiac hypertrophic gene expression, including atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP), brain natriuretic peptide (BNP) and β-myosin heavy chain (β-MHC), decrease the content of intracellular calcium induced by Ang II. In vivo experiments in mice confirmed that intravenous injection of silicate ions could remarkably inhibit the cardiac hypertrophy and promote the formation of capillaries, further alleviating Ang II-induced cardiac function disorder.

CONCLUSION

This study demonstrated that the released silicate ions from CS possessed potential value as a novel therapeutic strategy of pathological cardiac hypertrophy, which provided a new insight for clinical trials.

Upregulation of mitochondrial calcium uniporter contributes to paraquat-induced neuropathology linked to Parkinson's disease via imbalanced OPA1 processing

Paraquat (PQ) is the most widely used herbicide in agriculture worldwide and has been considered a high-risk environmental factor for Parkinson's disease (PD). Chronic PQ exposure selectively induces dopaminergic neuron loss, the hallmark pathologic feature of PD, resulting in Parkinson-like movement disorders. However, the underlying mechanisms remain unclear. Here, we demonstrated that repetitive PQ exposure caused dopaminergic neuron loss, dopamine deficiency and motor deficits dose-dependently in mice. Accordingly, mitochondrial calcium uniporter (MCU) was highly expressed in PQ-exposed mice and neuronal cells. Importantly, MCU knockout (KO) effectively rescued PQ-induced dopaminergic neuron loss and motor deficits in mice. Genetic and pharmacological inhibition of MCU alleviated PQ-induced mitochondrial dysfunction and neuronal death in vitro. Mechanistically, PQ exposure triggered mitochondrial fragmentation via imbalance of the optic atrophy 1 (OPA1) processing manifested by cleavage of L-OPA1 to S-OPA1, which was reversed by inhibition of MCU. Notably, the upregulation of MCU was mediated by miR-129-1-3p posttranscriptionally, and overexpression of miR-129-1-3p could rebalance OPA1 processing and attenuate mitochondrial dysfunction and neuronal death induced by PQ exposure. Consequently, our work uncovers an essential role of MCU and a novel molecular mechanism, miR-MCU-OPA1, in PQ-induced pathogenesis of PD, providing a potential target and strategy for environmental neurotoxins-induced PD treatment.

NSD2 promotes pressure overload-induced cardiac hypertrophy via activating circCmiss1/TfR1/ferroptosis signaling

Heart failure typically occurs early in the clinical course of sustained cardiac hypertrophy that is accompanied by maladaptive remodeling of the heart. It is critical to discover new mechanisms and effective therapeutic targets to prevent and cure pathological cardiac hypertrophy. The objective of the study was to evaluate the effects of circRNAs on NSD2-induced ventricular remodeling. We screened the dysregulated circRNAs in normal or NSD2^-/- C57BL/6 mice with or without transverse aortic constriction (TAC), and found that circCmss1 significantly increased in normal TAC mice, but decreased in NSD2^-/- TAC mice. Angiotensin II(Ang II)induced neonatal cardiomyocyte hypertrophy in vitro and the pressure overload-induced cardiac hypertrophy in vivo can be reduced by Knocking down circCmss1. We further investigated the downstream signaling of circCmss1 in the progression of NSD2-promoted ventricular remodeling and discovered that circCmss1 could interact with a transcription factor EIF4A3 and induce the expression of transferrin receptor 1 (TfR1), thus activating the ferroptosis in cardiomyocytes. This study highlights the significance of NSD2 activation of circCmss1/EIF4A3/TfR1 as therapeutic targets for treating pathological myocardial hypertrophy.

Long non-coding RNA KCND1 protects hearts from hypertrophy by targeting YBX1

Cardiac hypertrophy is a common structural remodeling in many cardiovascular diseases. Recently, long non-coding RNAs (LncRNAs) were found to be involved in the physiological and pathological processes of cardiac hypertrophy. In this study, we found that LncRNA KCND1 (LncKCND1) was downregulated in both transverse aortic constriction (TAC)-induced hypertrophic mouse hearts and Angiotensin II (Ang II)-induced neonatal mouse cardiomyocytes. Further analyses showed that the knockdown of LncKCND1 impaired cardiac mitochondrial function and led to hypertrophic changes in cardiomyocytes. In contrast, overexpression of LncKCND1 inhibited Ang II-induced cardiomyocyte hypertrophic changes. Importantly, enhanced expression of LncKCND1 protected the heart from TAC-induced pathological cardiac hypertrophy and improved heart function in TAC mice. Subsequent analyses involving mass spectrometry and RNA immunoprecipitation assays showed that LncKCND1 directly binds to YBX1. Furthermore, overexpression of LncKCND1 upregulated the expression level of YBX1, while silencing LncKCND1 had the opposite effect. Furthermore, YBX1 was downregulated during cardiac hypertrophy, whereas overexpression of YBX1 inhibited Ang II-induced cardiomyocyte hypertrophy. Moreover, silencing YBX1 reversed the effect of LncKCND1 on cardiomyocyte mitochondrial function and its protective role in cardiac hypertrophy, suggesting that YBX1 is a downstream target of LncKCND1 in regulating cardiac hypertrophy. In conclusion, our study provides mechanistic insights into the functioning of LncKCND1 and supports LncKCND1 as a potential therapeutic target for pathological cardiac hypertrophy.

Experimental research on the evaluation of left ventricular systolic function by layered speckle tracking before and after berberine treatment in a cardiac hypertrophy rat model

Background

To evaluate the effect of berberine (BBR) intervention on left ventricular hypertrophy and systolic function in rats by ultrasound layered strain imaging and cardiac hypertrophy model.

Methods

Eighty healthy male Sprague-Dawley (SD) rats were randomly divided into four groups: group A (normal saline control group), group B [isoproterenol (ISO) induced model group], group C (BBR hydrochloride 5 mg/kg + ISO group) and group D (BBR hydrochloride 10 mg/kg + ISO group). Echocardiography was performed on days 1, 7 and 14, respectively. The myocardial tissue was taken for pathological examination. The key proteins of Rho/ROCK signaling pathway were quantified by immunohistochemical staining.

Results

On day 7, compared with group A, peripheral strain values of the subendocardium and middle myocardium of rats in groups B, C and D were significantly decreased. The absolute value of circumferential strain (CS) in subendocardium and middle myocardium in group B was significantly lower than that in groups C and D (-24.21 vs. -26.68 vs. -27.69; -14.90 vs. -16.48 vs. -17.69). Pathological results showed that compared with the myocardial cells in control group A, the myocardial cells in group B had significantly increased cross-sectional area, and obvious myocardial interstitial fibrosis. Compared with group B, BBR intervention reduced the deposition of fibrosis in groups C and D, group D was more obvious. Immunohistochemical results showed that compared with group A, the protein expression levels of ROCK, RhoA and Bax in groups B, C and D were significantly increased, while the protein expression levels of Bcl-2 were significantly decreased.

Conclusions

Ultrasound layered strain imaging could evaluate the early left ventricular systolic function in isoprenaline-induced hypertrophy rat model. BBR might inhibit oxidative stress through the Rho/ROCK signaling pathway and slow down the progression of myocardial fibrosis after the formation of cardiac hypertrophy. This provides reference and direction for clinical decision-making and further research.

MCU gain- and loss-of-function models define the duality of mitochondrial calcium uptake in heart failure

Background

Mitochondrial calcium (mCa2+) uptake through the mitochondrial calcium uniporter channel (mtCU) stimulates metabolism to meet acute increases in cardiac energy demand. However, excessive mCa2+ uptake during stress, as in ischemia-reperfusion, initiates permeability transition and cell death. Despite these often-reported acute physiological and pathological effects, a major unresolved controversy is whether mtCU-dependent mCa2+ uptake and long-term elevation of cardiomyocyte mCa2+ contributes to the heart's adaptation during sustained increases in workload.

Objective

We tested the hypothesis that mtCU-dependent mCa2+ uptake contributes to cardiac adaptation and ventricular remodeling during sustained catecholaminergic stress.

Methods

Mice with tamoxifen-inducible, cardiomyocyte-specific gain (αMHC-MCM × flox-stop-MCU; MCU-Tg) or loss (αMHC-MCM × Mcufl/fl; Mcu-cKO) of mtCU function received 2-wk catecholamine infusion.

Results

Cardiac contractility increased after 2d of isoproterenol in control, but not Mcu-cKO mice. Contractility declined and cardiac hypertrophy increased after 1-2-wk of isoproterenol in MCU-Tg mice. MCU-Tg cardiomyocytes displayed increased sensitivity to Ca2+- and isoproterenol-induced necrosis. However, loss of the mitochondrial permeability transition pore (mPTP) regulator cyclophilin D failed to attenuate contractile dysfunction and hypertrophic remodeling, and increased isoproterenol-induced cardiomyocyte death in MCU-Tg mice.

Conclusions

mtCU mCa2+ uptake is required for early contractile responses to adrenergic signaling, even those occurring over several days. Under sustained adrenergic load excessive MCU-dependent mCa2+ uptake drives cardiomyocyte dropout, perhaps independent of classical mitochondrial permeability transition pore opening, and compromises contractile function. These findings suggest divergent consequences for acute versus sustained mCa2+ loading, and support distinct functional roles for the mPTP in settings of acute mCa2+ overload versus persistent mCa2+ stress.

Nuclear Calcium in Cardiac (Patho)Physiology: Small Compartment, Big Impact

The nucleus of a cardiomyocyte has been increasingly recognized as a morphologically distinct and partially independent calcium (Ca²⁺) signaling microdomain, with its own Ca²⁺-regulatory mechanisms and important effects on cardiac gene expression. In this review, we (1) provide a comprehensive overview of the current state of research on the dynamics and regulation of nuclear Ca²⁺ signaling in cardiomyocytes, (2) address the role of nuclear Ca²⁺ in the development and progression of cardiac pathologies, such as heart failure and atrial fibrillation, and (3) discuss novel aspects of experimental methods to investigate nuclear Ca²⁺ handling and its downstream effects in the heart. Finally, we highlight current challenges and limitations and recommend future directions for addressing key open questions.

MCU Upregulation Overactivates Mitophagy by Promoting VDAC1 Dimerization and Ubiquitination in the Hepatotoxicity of Cadmium

Cadmium (Cd) is a high-risk pathogenic toxin for hepatic diseases. Excessive mitophagy is a hallmark in Cd-induced hepatotoxicity. However, the underlying mechanism remains obscure. Mitochondrial calcium uniporter (MCU) is a key regulator for mitochondrial and cellular homeostasis. Here, Cd exposure upregulated MCU expression and increased mitochondrial Ca²⁺ uptake are found. MCU inhibition through siRNA or by Ru360 significantly attenuates Cd-induced excessive mitophagy, thereby rescues mitochondrial dysfunction and increases hepatocyte viability. Heterozygous MCU knockout mice exhibit improved liver function, ameliorated pathological damage, less mitochondrial fragmentation, and mitophagy after Cd exposure. Mechanistically, Cd upregulates MCU expression through phosphorylation activation of cAMP-response element binding protein at Ser133(CREB^S133 ) and subsequent binding of MCU promoter at the TGAGGTCT, ACGTCA, and CTCCGTGATGTA regions, leading to increased MCU gene transcription. The upregulated MCU intensively interacts with voltage-dependent anion-selective channel protein 1 (VDAC1), enhances its dimerization and ubiquitination, resulting in excessive mitophagy. This study reveals a novel mechanism, through which Cd upregulates MCU to enhance mitophagy and hepatotoxicity.

IGF-1 boosts mitochondrial function by a Ca2+ uptake-dependent mechanism in cultured human and rat cardiomyocytes

A physiological increase in cardiac workload results in adaptive cardiac remodeling, characterized by increased oxidative metabolism and improvements in cardiac performance. Insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-1) has been identified as a critical regulator of physiological cardiac growth, but its precise role in cardiometabolic adaptations to physiological stress remains unresolved. Mitochondrial calcium (Ca²⁺) handling has been proposed to be required for sustaining key mitochondrial dehydrogenase activity and energy production during increased workload conditions, thus ensuring the adaptive cardiac response. We hypothesized that IGF-1 enhances mitochondrial energy production through a Ca²⁺-dependent mechanism to ensure adaptive cardiomyocyte growth. We found that stimulation with IGF-1 resulted in increased mitochondrial Ca²⁺ uptake in neonatal rat ventricular myocytes and human embryonic stem cell-derived cardiomyocytes, estimated by fluorescence microscopy and indirectly by a reduction in the pyruvate dehydrogenase phosphorylation. We showed that IGF-1 modulated the expression of mitochondrial Ca²⁺ uniporter (MCU) complex subunits and increased the mitochondrial membrane potential; consistent with higher MCU-mediated Ca²⁺ transport. Finally, we showed that IGF-1 improved mitochondrial respiration through a mechanism dependent on MCU-mediated Ca²⁺ transport. In conclusion, IGF-1-induced mitochondrial Ca²⁺ uptake is required to boost oxidative metabolism during cardiomyocyte adaptive growth.

EFHD1, a novel mitochondrial regulator of tumor metastasis in clear cell renal cell carcinoma

The biological function of many mitochondrial proteins in mechanistic detail has not been well investigated in clear cell renal cell carcinoma (ccRCC). A seven-mitochondrial-gene signature was generated by Lasso regression analysis to improve the prediction of prognosis of patients with ccRCC, using The Cancer Genome Atlas and Clinical Proteomic Tumor Analysis Consortium cohort. Among those seven genes, EFHD1 is less studied and its role in the progression of ccRCC remains unknown. The decreased expression of EFHD1 was validated in clinical samples and was correlated with unfavorable outcome. Overexpression of EFHD1 in ccRCC cells resulted in the reduction of mitochondrial Ca²⁺ , and the inhibition of cell migration and invasion in vitro and tumor metastasis in vivo. Mechanistically, EFHD1 physically bound to the core mitochondrial calcium transporter (mitochondrial calcium uniporter, MCU) through its N-terminal domain. The interaction between EFHD1 and MCU suppressed the uptake of Ca²⁺ into mitochondria, and deactivated the Hippo/YAP signaling pathway. Further data revealed that the ectopic expression of EFHD1 upregulated STARD13 to enhance the phosphorylation of YAP protein at Ser-127. The knockdown of STARD13 or the overexpression of MCU partly abrogated the EFHD1-mediated induction of phosphorylation of YAP at Ser-127 and suppression of cell migration. Taken together, the newly identified EFHD1-MCU-STARD13 axis participates in the modulation of the Hippo/YAP pathway and serves as a novel regulator in the progression of ccRCC.

CaMKII and reactive oxygen species contribute to early reperfusion arrhythmias, but oxidation of CaMKIIδ at methionines 281/282 is not a determining factor

BACKGROUND

Available evidence suggest that Ca²⁺/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase type IIδ (CaMKIIδ) and reactive oxygen species (ROS) are important in early ischemia-reperfusion arrhythmias (IRA). Since ROS can activate CaMKIIδ by oxidation of two methionines at positions 281/282, oxidized-CaMKIIδ (Ox-CaMKIIδ) has been proposed to be important for IRA. However, direct evidence for this is missing.

METHODS

We exposed Langendorff-perfused hearts and ventricular cardiomyocytes from C57BL/6 mice to global and simulated ischemia, respectively, and recorded arrhythmic events during early reperfusion. Hearts were collected for immunoblotting of key phosphoproteins. We evaluated the effects of beta-adrenoceptor stimulation, inhibition of CaMKII, and reduced ROS levels with isoprenaline, KN93/AIP and N-acetylcysteine (NAC), respectively. We further tested the importance of Ox-CaMKIIδ by using hearts and cardiomyocytes from mice with CaMKIIδ resistant to oxidation of methionines 281 and 282 (MMVV).

RESULTS

Hearts treated with KN93, AIP or NAC had lower incidence of early IRA, and NAC-treated cardiomyocytes had lower incidence of arrhythmogenic events. However, hearts from MMVV mice had a similar incidence of early IRA to wild type mice (WT), and MMVV and WT cardiomyocytes had a similar frequency of Ca²⁺ waves and Ca²⁺ sparks. Immunoblotting confirmed high levels of oxidation in early reperfusion, but revealed no significant differences in the phosphorylation levels of Ca²⁺-handling proteins in MMVV and WT hearts.

CONCLUSIONS

Although CaMKII and ROS both contribute to early IRA, hearts from mice with CaMKII resistant to oxidation at methionines 281/282 were not protected from such arrhythmias, suggesting that oxidation at these sites is not a determining factor.

CaMKII as a Therapeutic Target in Cardiovascular Disease

CaMKII (the multifunctional Ca2+ and calmodulin-dependent protein kinase II) is a highly validated signal for promoting a variety of common diseases, particularly in the cardiovascular system. Despite substantial amounts of convincing preclinical data, CaMKII inhibitors have yet to emerge in clinical practice. Therapeutic inhibition is challenged by the diversity of CaMKII isoforms and splice variants and by physiological CaMKII activity that contributes to learning and memory. Thus, uncoupling the harmful and beneficial aspects of CaMKII will be paramount to developing effective therapies. In the last decade, several targeting strategies have emerged, including small molecules, peptides, and nucleotides, which hold promise in discriminating pathological from physiological CaMKII activity. Here we review the cellular and molecular biology of CaMKII, discuss its role in physiological and pathological signaling, and consider new findings and approaches for developing CaMKII therapeutics.

The interplay between cardiac dyads and mitochondria regulated the calcium handling in cardiomyocytes

Calcium mishandling and mitochondrial dysfunction have been increasingly recognized as significant factors involved in the progression procedure of cardiomyopathy. Ca2+ mishandling could cause calcium-triggered arrhythmias, which could enhance force development and ATP consumption. Mitochondrial disorganization and dysfunction in cardiomyopathy could disturb the balance of energy catabolic and anabolic procedure. Close spatial localization and arrangement of structural among T-tubule, sarcoplasmic reticulum, mitochondria are important for Ca2+ handling. So that, we illustrate the regulating network between calcium handling and mitochondrial homeostasis, as well as its intracellular mechanisms in this review, which would be worthy to develop novel therapeutic strategy and restore the function of injured cardiomyocytes.

SYNERGIC EFFECT OF PREPARATION WITH COORDINATION COMPLEX “TRIMETHYDRAZINIUM PROPIONATE+ETHYMTH METHYLHYDROXYPIRIDINE SUCCINATE” ON ENERGY METABOLISM AND CELL RESPIRATION

The article presents the results of an in vitro study of the synergetic effect evaluation of the combined preparation based on coordination complex ethylmethylhydroxypyridine succinate and trimethylhydrazinium propionate on energy metabolism and cell respiration.

The aim of the study was to evaluate the mitochondria-directed action of the metabolic and antioxidant preparation based on succinic acid coordination complex with trimethylhydrazinium in relation to optimizing the energy metabolism in the cells under the oxidative stress conditions, as well as against the background of ischemic processes.

Materials and methods. The study of the hydroxysuccinate complex effect of the drug Brainmax® components was carried out on isolated mouse liver mitochondria. In the course of the study, the potential of mitochondria, the generation rate of hydrogen peroxide during the respiration, the respiration rate were evaluated in the following positions: a) unstimulated by malate and pyruvate, b) stimulated by malate and pyruvate (complex I substrates), by succinate (complex II substrates), c) against the background of the initial section of the electron transport chain blockade by rotenone, d) in phosphorylation blockade by oligomycin, e) against the background of the FCCP-induced uncoupling, and f) in cyanide-blocked complex IV (cytochrome C oxidase).

Results. It has been shown that the succinic acid coordination complex with trimethylhydrazinium, which is the active principle of the Brainmax® drug, significantly reduced the transmembrane potential of mitochondria (IC50=197±5 µM), compared with the widely used preparations of ethylmethylhydroxypyridine succinate and trimethylhydrazinium propionate, which facilitates the transfer of the produced ATP into the cell and preserves a vital activity of mitochondria even under stress. In the study of the mitochondrial respiration stimulated by the substrates of complex I (NADP-coenzyme Q-oxidoreductase), pyruvate and malate, the studied drug led to a more pronounced increase in the oxygen consumption with IC50=75±6 µМ. When evaluating the effect of the complex on the production of ATP by mitochondria, the most pronounced effect was observed with the addition of studied complex, which indicated to the uncoupling of respiration and oxidative phosphorylation at the given concentrations of the studied compounds. When assessing the effect of the complex on the production of hydrogen peroxide by isolated mitochondria, a significant decrease in the peroxide production was shown in the samples containing the complex of trimethylhydrazinium propionate and EMHPS.

Conclusion. Based on totality of the results obtained, it can be assumed that a favorable conformation of the pharmacophore groups of ethylmethylhydroxypyridine succinate and trimethylhydrozinium propionate coordination complex included in the composition of Brainmax® leads to a synergetic interaction and more pronounced pharmacological effects on target cells. This complex provides stabilization of a mitochondrial function, intensification of the adenosine triphosphate energy production and the optimization of energy processes in the cell, reduces the severity of the oxidative stress and eliminates undesirable effects of an ischemic-hypoxic tissue damage.

Mitochondrial Quality Control in the Heart: The Balance between Physiological and Pathological Stress

Alterations in mitochondrial function and morphology are critical adaptations to cardiovascular stress, working in concert in an attempt to restore organelle-level and cellular-level homeostasis. Processes that alter mitochondrial morphology include fission, fusion, mitophagy, and biogenesis, and these interact to maintain mitochondrial quality control. Not all cardiovascular stress is pathologic (e.g., ischemia, pressure overload, cardiotoxins), despite a wealth of studies to this effect. Physiological stress, such as that induced by aerobic exercise, can induce morphologic adaptations that share many common pathways with pathological stress, but in this case result in improved mitochondrial health. Developing a better understanding of the mechanisms underlying alterations in mitochondrial quality control under diverse cardiovascular stressors will aid in the development of pharmacologic interventions aimed at restoring cellular homeostasis.