Differential effects of nebivolol and metoprolol on insulin sensitivity and plasminogen activator inhibitor in the metabolic syndrome

Effect of nebivolol monotherapy or combination therapy on blood pressure levels in patients with hypertension: an updated systematic review and multilevel meta-analysis of 91 randomized controlled trials

AIMS

To systematically appraise and summarize the available evidence from published randomized controlled trials considering the effect of nebivolol on blood pressure in patients with hypertension.

METHODS

Literature search was performed through Medline (via PubMed), Cochrane Library and Scopus until December 15, 2023. Double-independent study selection, data extraction and quality assessment were performed. Evidence was pooled with three-level mixed-effects meta-analysis.

RESULTS

In total, 7,737 participants with hypertension, who were treated with nebivolol, were analyzed across 91 RCTs. Nebivolol was associated with significantly greater reduction in office systolic and diastolic BP compared to placebo (MD = - 6.01 mmHg; 95% CI = [- 7.46, - 4.55] and MD = - 5.01 mmHg; 95% CI = [- 5.91, - 4.11], respectively). Moreover, resulted a similar reduction in systolic BP (MD = - 0.22 mmHg; 95% CI = [- 0.91, 0.46]) and a significantly greater reduction in diastolic BP compared to the active comparator (MD = - 0.71 mmHg; 95% CI = [- 1.27, - 0.16]). When considering the effect of nebivolol on 24-hour ambulatory BP, notable reductions were observed compared to placebo. In contrast, compared to the active comparators, there was no significant difference in systolic BP reduction, but a significant reduction in diastolic BP favoring nebivolol. Based on moderator analyses, the impact of nebivolol on the pooled estimates remained independent of the dose of nebivolol, age, male sex, trial duration, body mass index (BMI), baseline diabetes, heart failure, and baseline systolic and diastolic BP.

CONCLUSION

Nebivolol, compared to placebo, showed a significant BP reduction and was non-inferior to other active comparators in terms of BP reduction.

Physicians' attitudes toward beta-blockers for the treatment of hypertension in Italy, Poland, and Turkey

Despite substantial progress in understanding the complex pathophysiology, hypertension remains a serious public health challenge affecting over 1.2 billion adults aged 30-79 years worldwide. Appropriate knowledge of the different pharmaceutical classes of antihypertensive agents and an understanding of the characteristics of individual molecules are essential to optimize clinical outcomes in patients with hypertension. We conducted a computer-assisted web interviewing (CAWI) quantitative survey in Italy, Poland, and Turkey to investigate physicians' prescriptions, knowledge, and perceptions of antihypertensive drugs with a focus on β-blockers, to assess antihypertensive usage patterns and the reasons underlying prescription choices. The survey findings show that β-blockers retain a pivotal role in the management of hypertension and are prescribed more often for patients with cardiovascular comorbidities than for patients with diabetic comorbidities. In all three countries, nebivolol is the only β-blocker among the ones analyzed which is consistently prescribed to 20% or more of patients and is overall the most prescribed one for the population with comorbid diabetes. In terms of specific β-blockers' features, this study revealed knowledge gaps that underline the need for educational activities focused on the differences among β-blockers, which are important in choosing the most suitable agent for individualized antihypertensive therapy.

Treating the Side Effects of Exogenous Glucocorticoids; Can We Separate the Good From the Bad?

It is estimated that 2% to 3% of the population are currently prescribed systemic or topical glucocorticoid treatment. The potent anti-inflammatory action of glucocorticoids to deliver therapeutic benefit is not in doubt. However, the side effects associated with their use, including central weight gain, hypertension, insulin resistance, type 2 diabetes (T2D), and osteoporosis, often collectively termed iatrogenic Cushing's syndrome, are associated with a significant health and economic burden. The precise cellular mechanisms underpinning the differential action of glucocorticoids to drive the desirable and undesirable effects are still not completely understood. Faced with the unmet clinical need to limit glucocorticoid-induced adverse effects alongside ensuring the preservation of anti-inflammatory actions, several strategies have been pursued. The coprescription of existing licensed drugs to treat incident adverse effects can be effective, but data examining the prevention of adverse effects are limited. Novel selective glucocorticoid receptor agonists and selective glucocorticoid receptor modulators have been designed that aim to specifically and selectively activate anti-inflammatory responses based upon their interaction with the glucocorticoid receptor. Several of these compounds are currently in clinical trials to evaluate their efficacy. More recently, strategies exploiting tissue-specific glucocorticoid metabolism through the isoforms of 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase has shown early potential, although data from clinical trials are limited. The aim of any treatment is to maximize benefit while minimizing risk, and within this review we define the adverse effect profile associated with glucocorticoid use and evaluate current and developing strategies that aim to limit side effects but preserve desirable therapeutic efficacy.

Hypertension management in patients with cardiovascular comorbidities

Arterial hypertension is a leading cause of death globally. Due to ageing, the rising incidence of obesity, and socioeconomic and environmental changes, its incidence increases worldwide. Hypertension commonly coexists with Type 2 diabetes, obesity, dyslipidaemia, sedentary lifestyle, and smoking leading to risk amplification. Blood pressure lowering by lifestyle modifications and antihypertensive drugs reduce cardiovascular (CV) morbidity and mortality. Guidelines recommend dual- and triple-combination therapies using renin–angiotensin system blockers, calcium channel blockers, and/or a diuretic. Comorbidities often complicate management. New drugs such as angiotensin receptor-neprilysin inhibitors, sodium–glucose cotransporter 2 inhibitors, glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor agonists, and non-steroidal mineralocorticoid receptor antagonists improve CV and renal outcomes. Catheter-based renal denervation could offer an alternative treatment option in comorbid hypertension associated with increased sympathetic nerve activity. This review summarises the latest clinical evidence for managing hypertension with CV comorbidities.

Cardiovascular disease in type 2 diabetes mellitus: progress toward personalized management

Cardiovascular diseases (CVDs) are the main cause of death among patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM), particularly in low- and middle-income countries. To effectively prevent the development of CVDs in T2DM, considerable effort has been made to explore novel preventive approaches, individualized glycemic control and cardiovascular risk management (strict blood pressure and lipid control), together with recently developed glucose-lowering agents and lipid-lowering drugs. This review mainly addresses the important issues affecting the choice of antidiabetic agents and lipid, blood pressure and antiplatelet treatments considering the cardiovascular status of the patient. Finally, we also discuss the changes in therapy principles underlying CVDs in T2DM.

Effect of Third-Generation Beta Blockers on Weight Loss in a Population of Overweight-Obese Subjects in a Controlled Dietary Regimen

Background

Overweight and obesity often develop in individuals with genetic susceptibility and concomitant risk factors; however, medications can represent precipitating factors in some cases: evidence suggests that some antihypertensive drugs can adversely affect energy homeostasis and metabolism.

Aim

The primary aim of this study was to investigate whether long-term therapy with a beta blocker impairs weight loss during a period of appropriate personalized hypocaloric diet and standardized physical activity in overweight and obese hypertensive patients in monotherapy and without comorbidities, compared to other antihypertensive drugs and to a control group not taking antihypertensive therapy. Subjects and Methods. We enrolled overweight and obese patients taking antihypertensive drugs; subjects were divided into 3 groups: those taking traditional beta blockers (bB group), those taking third-generation beta blockers (bB-3 group), and those taking other antihypertensive drugs (non-bB group). We also enrolled subjects receiving neither antihypertensive therapy nor other chronic medication in the prior 12 months as controls. All subjects underwent personalized hypocaloric diets for a period of 24 months with monthly follow-up. Anthropometric parameters were measured at enrollment and then monthly after diet prescription. Glucose and lipid values were assessed at baseline and at 12 and 24 months during dietary regimen.

Results

We enrolled a total of 120 overweight and obese patients aged 50.30 ± 1.13 years (mean ± standard deviation) with a mean BMI of 31.79 ± 0.65 kg/m²; 90 were taking antihypertensive drugs (no comorbidity and no polytherapy), while 30 subjects receiving neither antihypertensive therapy nor other chronic medication in the prior 12 months were considered as controls. After 6 months, the percent total weight loss (TWL%) was lower in the bB group (3.62 ± 1.96 versus 5.27 ± 1.76 in the bB-3 group, versus 5.15 ± 1.30 in the non-bB group, and versus 4.70 ± 0.87 in the control group), as well as their BMI. After 24 months, we kept finding the worst result in the bB group (TWL% = 9.22 ± 2.19 versus 12.79 ± 1.72 in the non-bB group and 12.28 ± 1.97 in the control group) with the best trend in the bB-3 group (TWL% = 16.19 ± 2.67).

Guide de Pratique Clinique. Prise en charge de l’hypertension artérielle chez l’adulte en Tunisie

Ce document a été réalisé dans le cadre d'une collaboration entre l'Instance Nationale de l’Évaluation et de l'Accréditation en Santé (INEAS), la Société Tunisienne de Cardiologie et de Chirurgie Cardiovasculaire (STCCCV) et la Caisse Nationale d’Assurance Maladie (CNAM).

Therapeutic Properties of Highly Selective β-blockers With or Without Additional Vasodilator Properties: Focus on Bisoprolol and Nebivolol in Patients With Cardiovascular Disease

Bisoprolol and nebivolol are highly selective β₁-adrenoceptor antagonists, with clinical indications in many countries within the management of heart failure with reduced left ventricular ejection fraction (HFrEF), ischaemic heart disease (IHD), and hypertension. Nebivolol has additional vasodilator actions, related to enhanced release of NO in the vascular wall. In principle, this additional mechanism compared with bisoprolol might lead to more potent vasodilatation, which in turn might influence the effectiveness of nebivolol in the management of HFrEF, IHD and hypertension. In this article, we review the therapeutic properties of bisoprolol and nebivolol, as representatives of “second generation” and “third generation” β-blockers, respectively. Although head-to-head trials are largely lacking, there is no clear indication from published studies of an additional effect of nebivolol on clinical outcomes in patients with HFrEF or the magnitude of reductions of BP in patients with hypertension.

Obesity, metabolic syndrome, and primary hypertension

Primary hypertension is the dominant form of arterial hypertension in adolescents. Disturbed body composition with, among other things, increased visceral fat deposition, accelerated biological maturation, metabolic abnormalities typical for metabolic syndrome, and increased adrenergic drive constitutes the intermediary phenotype of primary hypertension. Metabolic syndrome is observed in 15-20% of adolescents with primary hypertension. These features are also typical of obesity-related hypertension. Metabolic abnormalities and metabolic syndrome are closely associated with both the severity of hypertension and the risk of target organ damage. However, even though increased body mass index is the main determinant of blood pressure in the general population, not every hypertensive adolescent is obese and not every obese patient suffers from hypertension or metabolic abnormalities typical for metabolic syndrome. Thus, the concepts of metabolically healthy obesity, normal weight metabolically unhealthy, and metabolically unhealthy obese phenotypes have been developed. The risk of hypertension and hypertensive target organ damage increases with exposure to metabolic risk factors which are determined by disturbed body composition and visceral obesity. Due to the fact that both primary hypertension and obesity-related hypertension present similar pathogenesis, the principles of treatment are the same and are focused not only on lowering blood pressure, but also on normalizing body composition and metabolic abnormalities.

Effect of carvedilol versus nebivolol on insulin resistance among non-diabetic, non-ischemic cardiomyopathy with heart failure

Background

Although B-blockers provide unequivocal benefits in heart failure (HF) management, some B-blockers worsen insulin resistance. It will be a promising strategy to recruit such a B blocker that did not worsen or can even improve insulin resistance (IR).

So, this study aimed to assess the effect of two of the third-generation B-blockers (carvedilol versus nebivolol) on insulin sensitivity state in non-diabetic patients with non-ischemic cardiomyopathy with heart failure.

Results

Out of 43 patients enrolled, 58.1% represented the carvedilol group while 41.9% represented the nebivolol group. Nebivolol improves insulin resistance-related variables (fasting glucose, fasting insulin, and HOMA-IR; P < 0.001, 0.01, and 0.01 respectively). The percentage of change at homeostasis model of assessment (HOMA-IR), indicative of insulin sensitivity status, between baseline versus at 3-months follow-up level of intra-group comparison was increased by 4.58% in the carvedilol arm whereas it was decreased by 11.67% in the nebivolol arm, and the difference on the intragroup level of comparison was significant (P < 0.001 and 0.01 respectively).

Conclusion

Nebivolol improves insulin resistance-related variables .Nebivolol may be recommended as the B blocker of the first choice for those with non-ischemic cardiomyopathy heart failure with evident insulin resistance; however, larger scaled prospective multicenter randomized trials are needed for confirming our favorable results.

The association of the metabolic syndrome with target organ damage: focus on the heart, brain, and central arteries

INTRODUCTION

The metabolic syndrome (MetS) is an adverse metabolic state composed of obesity, hyperglycemia/pre-diabetes, hypertension, and dyslipidemia. It substantially increases the risk of type 2 diabetes, cardiovascular disease (CVD) and mortality, and has a huge impact on public health.

AREA COVERED

The present review gives an update on the definition and prevalence of MetS, and its impact on cardiac structure and function as well as on the brain and central arteries. The association with CVD and mortality risk is discussed. Focus is mainly directed toward the subclinical target organ damage related to MetS. Data is also critically reviewed to provide evidence on the incremental prognostic value of overall MetS over its individual components.

EXPERT COMMENTARY

MetS is a clinical risk condition associated with subclinical and clinical CVD and mortality. Roughly, 30% of the world population suffer from MetS. As all components of the MetS are modifiable, optimal preventive and therapeutic measures should be initiated to improve CV risk control, particularly aggressively treating hypertension and hyperglycemia, and encouraging people to adopt healthy lifestyle as early as possible is of great importance.

Importance of intensive blood pressure control in type 2 diabetes: Mechanisms, treatments and current guidelines

Observational and interventional studies have shown that intensified blood pressure (BP) reduction can benefit people with diabetes. Because of their special haemodynamic properties, renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS) blockers are recommended. The results of the BP arm of the ADVANCE study strongly support the recently updated European Society of Cardiology/European Association of Diabetes recommendations for the treatment of BP in people with diabetes, which recommend a target systolic/diastolic BP of 130/80 mmHg with few exceptions, and a fixed combination of an RAAS blocker with a diuretic or a calcium channel blocker as first-line treatment.

Österreichischer Blutdruckkonsens 2019

Erhöhter Blutdruck bleibt eine Hauptursache von kardiovaskulären Erkrankungen, Behinderung und frühzeitiger Sterblichkeit in Österreich, wobei die Raten an Diagnose, Behandlung und Kontrolle auch in rezenten Studien suboptimal sind. Das Management von Bluthochdruck ist eine häufige Herausforderung für Ärztinnen und Ärzte vieler Fachrichtungen. In einem Versuch, diagnostische und therapeutische Strategien zu standardisieren und letztendlich die Rate an gut kontrollierten Hypertoniker/innen zu erhöhen und dadurch kardiovaskuläre Erkrankungen zu verhindern, haben 13 österreichische medizinische Fachgesellschaften die vorhandene Evidenz zur Prävention, Diagnose, Abklärung, Therapie und Konsequenzen erhöhten Blutdrucks gesichtet. Das hier vorgestellte Ergebnis ist der erste Österreichische Blutdruckkonsens. Die Autoren und die beteiligten Fachgesellschaften sind davon überzeugt, daß es einer gemeinsamen nationalen Anstrengung bedarf, die Blutdruck-assoziierte Morbidität und Mortalität in unserem Land zu verringern.

Primary Prevention of ASCVD and T2DM in Patients at Metabolic Risk: An Endocrine Society* Clinical Practice Guideline

OBJECTIVE

To develop clinical practice guidelines for the primary prevention of atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease (ASCVD) and type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) in individuals at metabolic risk for developing these conditions.

CONCLUSIONS

Health care providers should incorporate regular screening and identification of individuals at metabolic risk (at higher risk for ASCVD and T2DM) with measurement of blood pressure, waist circumference, fasting lipid profile, and blood glucose. Individuals identified at metabolic risk should undergo 10-year global risk assessment for ASCVD or coronary heart disease to determine targets of therapy for reduction of apolipoprotein B-containing lipoproteins. Hypertension should be treated to targets outlined in this guideline. Individuals with prediabetes should be tested at least annually for progression to diabetes and referred to intensive diet and physical activity behavioral counseling programs. For the primary prevention of ASCVD and T2DM, the Writing Committee recommends lifestyle management be the first priority. Behavioral programs should include a heart-healthy dietary pattern and sodium restriction, as well as an active lifestyle with daily walking, limited sedentary time, and a structured program of physical activity, if appropriate. Individuals with excess weight should aim for loss of ≥5% of initial body weight in the first year. Behavior changes should be supported by a comprehensive program led by trained interventionists and reinforced by primary care providers. Pharmacological and medical therapy can be used in addition to lifestyle modification when recommended goals are not achieved.

The Pathophysiology and Treatment of Hypertension in Patients With Cushing's Syndrome

When hypertension, a pathology that is frequently found in the general population, presents in a young patient, secondary causes such as Cushing's syndrome (CS), a rare disease characterized by long-term elevated cortisol levels, should be considered. Present in ~80% of CS patients independently of their age and sex, hypertension is one of the pathology's most prevalent, alarming features. Its severity is principally associated with the duration and intensity of elevated cortisol levels. Prompt diagnosis and rapid initiation of treatment are important for reducing/delaying the consequences of hypercortisolism. Glucocorticoid excess leads to hypertension via a variety of mechanisms including mineralocorticoid mimetic activity, alterations in peripheral and renovascular resistance, and vascular remodeling. As hypertension in CS patients is caused by cortisol excess, treating the underlying pathology generally contributes to reducing blood pressure (BP) levels, although hypertension tends to persist in approximately 30% of cured patients. Surgical removal of the pituitary tumor remains the first-line treatment for both adrenocorticotropin hormone (ACTH) dependent and independent forms of the syndrome. In light of the fact that surgery is not always successful in curing the underlying disease, it is essential that other treatments be considered and prescribed as needed. This article discusses the mechanisms involved in the pathogenesis of CS and the pros and the cons of the various antihypertensive agents that are presently available to treat these patients.

Potential Protective Role of Blood Pressure-Lowering Drugs on the Balance between Hemostasis and Fibrinolysis in Hypertensive Patients at Rest and During Exercise

In patients with hypertension, the triad represented by endothelial dysfunction, platelet hyperactivity, and altered fibrinolytic function disturbs the equilibrium between hemostasis and fibrinolysis and translates into a hypercoagulable state, which underlies the risk of thrombotic complications. This article reviews the scientific evidence regarding some biological effects of antihypertensive drugs, which can protect patients from the adverse consequences of hypertensive disease, improving endothelial function, enhancing antioxidant activity, and restoring equilibrium between hemostatic and fibrinolytic factors. These protective effects appear not to be mediated through blood pressure reduction and are not shared by all molecules of the same pharmacological class.

Insights on β-blockers for the treatment of hypertension: A survey of health care practitioners

A quantitative survey was completed by 103 primary care physicians (PCPs) and 59 cardiologists who regularly prescribed β-blockers to assess knowledge and use of this heterogeneous drug class for hypertension. More cardiologists than PCPs chose β-blockers as initial antihypertensive therapy (30% vs 17%, P < 0.01). Metoprolol and carvedilol were the most commonly prescribed β-blockers. Cardiologists rated "impact on energy" and "arterial vasodilation" as more important than PCPs (P < 0.05/<0.01, respectively). Awareness of vasodilation was greater for carvedilol (52%) than nebivolol (31%). Association between β-blockers and clinical variables included nebivolol with β₁ -selectivity, nebivolol and carvedilol with vasodilation and efficacy in older patients and African Americans, metoprolol with heart rate reduction, and atenolol and metoprolol with weight gain and hyperglycemia. Physicians preferred prescribing β-blockers with lower risk of incident diabetes. Clinical practice guidelines influenced physician prescribing more than formularies or performance metrics. This survey captures physicians' perceptions/use of various β-blockers and clinically relevant knowledge gaps.

2018 ESC/ESH Guidelines for the management of arterial hypertension: The Task Force for the management of arterial hypertension of the European Society of Cardiology and the European Society of Hypertension: The Task Force for the management of arterial hypertension of the European Society of Cardiology and the European Society of Hypertension

: Document reviewers: Guy De Backer (ESC Review Co-ordinator) (Belgium), Anthony M. Heagerty (ESH Review Co-ordinator) (UK), Stefan Agewall (Norway), Murielle Bochud (Switzerland), Claudio Borghi (Italy), Pierre Boutouyrie (France), Jana Brguljan (Slovenia), Héctor Bueno (Spain), Enrico G. Caiani (Italy), Bo Carlberg (Sweden), Neil Chapman (UK), Renata Cifkova (Czech Republic), John G. F. Cleland (UK), Jean-Philippe Collet (France), Ioan Mircea Coman (Romania), Peter W. de Leeuw (The Netherlands), Victoria Delgado (The Netherlands), Paul Dendale (Belgium), Hans-Christoph Diener (Germany), Maria Dorobantu (Romania), Robert Fagard (Belgium), Csaba Farsang (Hungary), Marc Ferrini (France), Ian M. Graham (Ireland), Guido Grassi (Italy), Hermann Haller (Germany), F. D. Richard Hobbs (UK), Bojan Jelakovic (Croatia), Catriona Jennings (UK), Hugo A. Katus (Germany), Abraham A. Kroon (The Netherlands), Christophe Leclercq (France), Dragan Lovic (Serbia), Empar Lurbe (Spain), Athanasios J. Manolis (Greece), Theresa A. McDonagh (UK), Franz Messerli (Switzerland), Maria Lorenza Muiesan (Italy), Uwe Nixdorff (Germany), Michael Hecht Olsen (Denmark), Gianfranco Parati (Italy), Joep Perk (Sweden), Massimo Francesco Piepoli (Italy), Jorge Polonia (Portugal), Piotr Ponikowski (Poland), Dimitrios J. Richter (Greece), Stefano F. Rimoldi (Switzerland), Marco Roffi (Switzerland), Naveed Sattar (UK), Petar M. Seferovic (Serbia), Iain A. Simpson (UK), Miguel Sousa-Uva (Portugal), Alice V. Stanton (Ireland), Philippe van de Borne (Belgium), Panos Vardas (Greece), Massimo Volpe (Italy), Sven Wassmann (Germany), Stephan Windecker (Switzerland), Jose Luis Zamorano (Spain).The disclosure forms of all experts involved in the development of these Guidelines are available on the ESC website www.escardio.org/guidelines.

Strategies to decrease oxidative stress biomarker levels in human medical conditions: A meta-analysis on 8-iso-prostaglandin F2α

The widespread detection of elevated oxidative stress levels in many medical conditions has led to numerous efforts to design interventions to reduce its effects. Efforts have been wide-ranging, from dietary changes to administration of antioxidants, supplements, e.g., omega-3-fatty acids, and many medications. However, there is still no systemic assessment of the efficacy of treatments for oxidative stress reduction across a variety of medical conditions. The goal of this meta-analysis is, by combining multiple studies, to quantitate the change in the levels of the popular oxidative stress biomarker 8-iso-prostaglandin F2α (8-iso-PGF2α) after a variety of treatment strategies in human populations. Nearly 350 unique publications with 180 distinct strategies were included in the analysis. For each strategy, the difference between pre- or placebo and post-treatment levels calculated using Hedges' g value of effect. In general, administration of antibiotics, antihyperlipidemic agents, or changes in lifestyle (g = - 0.63, - 0.54, and 0.56) had the largest effect. Administration of supplements, antioxidants, or changes in diet (g = - 0.09, - 0.28, - 0.12) had small quantitative effects. To fully interpret the effectiveness of these treatments, comparisons to the increase in g value for each medical condition is required. For example, antioxidants in populations with coronary artery disease (CAD) reduce the 8-iso-PGF2α levels by g = - 0.34 ± 0.1, which is quantitatively considered a small effect. However, CAD populations, in comparison to healthy populations, have an increase in 8-iso-PGF2α levels by g = 0.38 ± 0.04; therefore, the overall reduction of 8-iso-PGF2α levels is ≈ 90% by this treatment in this specific medical condition. In conclusion, 8-iso-PGF2α levels can be reduced not only by antioxidants but by many other strategies. Not all strategies are equally effective at reducing 8-iso-PGF2α levels. In addition, the effectiveness of any strategy can be assessed only in relation to the medical condition investigated.

The Vasculature in Prediabetes

The frequency of prediabetes is increasing as the prevalence of obesity rises worldwide. In prediabetes, hyperglycemia, insulin resistance, and inflammation and metabolic derangements associated with concomitant obesity cause endothelial vasodilator and fibrinolytic dysfunction, leading to increased risk of cardiovascular and renal disease. Importantly, the microvasculature affects insulin sensitivity by affecting the delivery of insulin and glucose to skeletal muscle; thus, endothelial dysfunction and extracellular matrix remodeling promote the progression from prediabetes to diabetes mellitus. Weight loss is the mainstay of treatment in prediabetes, but therapies that improved endothelial function and vasodilation may not only prevent cardiovascular disease but also slow progression to diabetes mellitus.

Rationale for nebivolol/valsartan combination for hypertension: review of preclinical and clinical data

To treat hypertension, combining two or more antihypertensive drugs from different classes is often necessary. β-Blockers and renin–angiotensin–aldosterone system inhibitors, when combined, have been deemed ‘less effective’ based on partially overlapping mechanisms of action and limited evidence. Recently, the single-pill combination (SPC) of nebivolol (Neb) 5 mg – a vasodilatory β1-selective antagonist/β3 agonist – and valsartan 80 mg, an angiotensin II receptor blocker, was US Food and Drug Administration-approved for hypertension. Pharmacological profiles of Neb and valsartan, alone and combined, are well characterized. In addition, a large 8-week randomized trial in stages I–II hypertensive patients (N = 4161) demonstrated greater blood pressure-reducing efficacy for Neb/valsartan SPCs than component monotherapies with comparable tolerability. In a biomarkers substudy (N = 805), Neb/valsartan SPCs prevented valsartan-induced increases in plasma renin, and a greater reduction in plasma aldosterone was observed with the highest SPC dose vs. valsartan 320 mg/day. This review summarizes preclinical and clinical evidence supporting Neb/valsartan as an efficacious and well tolerated combination treatment for hypertension.

Nebivolol, But Not Metoprolol, Treatment Improves Endothelial Fibrinolytic Capacity in Adults With Elevated Blood Pressure

BACKGROUND

Vascular endothelial fibrinolytic function is impaired in adults with prehypertension and hypertension and plays a mechanistic role in the development of atherothrombotic events. The influence of β-blockers on endothelial fibrinolysis is unknown. This study compared the effects of chronic nebivolol and metoprolol treatment on endothelial tissue-type plasminogen activator (t-PA) release in adults with elevated blood pressure (BP).

METHODS AND RESULTS

Forty-four middle-aged adults (36% women) with elevated BP completed a 3-month, double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled trial comparing nebivolol (5 mg/d), metoprolol succinate (100 mg/d), and placebo. Net endothelial t-PA release was determined in vivo in response to intrabrachial infusions of bradykinin and sodium nitroprusside before and after each intervention. In a subset, the dose-response curves to bradykinin and sodium nitroprusside were repeated with a coinfusion of the antioxidant vitamin C. At baseline, resting BP and endothelial t-PA release were comparable between the 3 groups. BP decreased to a similar extent (≈10 mm Hg) in the nebivolol- and metoprolol-treated groups. There was a substantial increase (≈30%; P<0.05) in the capacity of the endothelium to release t-PA following chronic treatment with nebivolol but not metoprolol or placebo. Mitigating oxidant stress with vitamin C coinfusion potentiated t-PA release (90%; P<0.05) at baseline in all groups. However, after the intervention, t-PA release was unchanged by vitamin C coinfusion in the nebivolol group only.

CONCLUSIONS

Nebivolol but not metoprolol improves endothelial t-PA release in adults with elevated BP. This may be an important vascular benefit of nebivolol.

CLINICAL TRIAL REGISTRATION

URL: http://www.clinicaltrials.gov. Unique identifier: NCT01595516.

Differential Metabolic Effects of Beta-Blockers: an Updated Systematic Review of Nebivolol

Blood pressure management in hypertensive patients with metabolic abnormalities is challenging, since many of the antihypertensive drugs adversely affect metabolism. Besides effective control of blood pressure in patients with hypertension, third-generation beta-blockers such as nebivolol offer additional benefits for central hemodynamics and neutral or beneficial effects on metabolism. Emerging clinical data suggest that nebivolol also has similar effects on metabolism in obese hypertensive and hypertensive diabetic patients. The present article will provide a systematic analysis of the pathophysiological links among hypertension, insulin resistance, and metabolic syndrome. We will also summarize the available clinical evidence regarding the metabolic effects of beta-blockers in hypertensive patients, with an emphasis on nebivolol. Nebivolol exerts neutral or beneficial effects on insulin sensitivity and lipid metabolism in hypertensive patients, owing to its nitric oxide-mediated vasodilatory and antioxidative properties. Thus, nebivolol could be a favorable therapeutic option for the treatment of hypertension in patients with impaired glucose and lipid metabolism.

Insulin and β Adrenergic Receptor Signaling: Crosstalk in Heart

Recent advances show that insulin may affect β adrenergic receptor (βAR) signaling in the heart to modulate cardiac function in clinically relevant states, such as diabetes mellitus (DM) and heart failure (HF). Conversely, activation of βAR regulates cardiac glucose uptake and promotes insulin resistance (IR) in HF. Here, we discuss the recent characterization of the interaction between the cardiac insulin receptor (InsR) and βAR in the myocardium, in which insulin stimulation crosstalks with cardiac βAR via InsR substrate (IRS)-dependent and G-protein receptor kinase 2 (GRK2)-mediated phosphorylation of β₂AR. The insulin-induced phosphorylation promotes β₂AR coupling to G_i and expression of phosphodiesterase 4D, which both inhibit cardiac adrenergic signaling and compromise cardiac contractile function. These recent developments could support new approaches for the effective prevention or treatment of obesity- or DM-related HF.

Cytochrome P450 epoxygenase-derived epoxyeicosatrienoic acids contribute to insulin sensitivity in mice and in humans

AIMS/HYPOTHESIS

Insulin resistance is frequently associated with hypertension and type 2 diabetes. The cytochrome P450 (CYP) arachidonic acid epoxygenases (CYP2C, CYP2J) and their epoxyeicosatrienoic acid (EET) products lower blood pressure and may also improve glucose homeostasis. However, the direct contribution of endogenous EET production on insulin sensitivity has not been previously investigated. In this study, we tested the hypothesis that endogenous CYP2C-derived EETs alter insulin sensitivity by analysing mice lacking CYP2C44, a major EET producing enzyme, and by testing the association of plasma EETs with insulin sensitivity in humans.

METHODS

We assessed insulin sensitivity in wild-type (WT) and Cyp2c44 -/- mice using hyperinsulinaemic-euglycaemic clamps and isolated skeletal muscle. Insulin secretory function was assessed using hyperglycaemic clamps and isolated islets. Vascular function was tested in isolated perfused mesenteric vessels. Insulin sensitivity and secretion were assessed in humans using frequently sampled intravenous glucose tolerance tests and plasma EETs were measured by mass spectrometry.

RESULTS

Cyp2c44 -/- mice showed decreased glucose tolerance (639 ± 39.5 vs 808 ± 37.7 mmol/l × min for glucose tolerance tests, p = 0.004) and insulin sensitivity compared with WT controls (hyperinsulinaemic clamp glucose infusion rate average during terminal 30 min 0.22 ± 0.02 vs 0.33 ± 0.01 mmol kg-1 min-1 in WT and Cyp2c44 -/- mice respectively, p = 0.003). Although glucose uptake was diminished in Cyp2c44 -/- mice in vivo (gastrocnemius Rg 16.4 ± 2.0 vs 6.2 ± 1.7 μmol 100 g-1 min-1, p < 0.01) insulin-stimulated glucose uptake was unchanged ex vivo in isolated skeletal muscle. Capillary density was similar but vascular KATP-induced relaxation was impaired in isolated Cyp2c44 -/- vessels (maximal response 39.3 ± 6.5% of control, p < 0.001), suggesting that impaired vascular reactivity produces impaired insulin sensitivity in vivo. Similarly, plasma EETs positively correlated with insulin sensitivity in human participants.

CONCLUSIONS/INTERPRETATION

CYP2C-derived EETs contribute to insulin sensitivity in mice and in humans. Interventions to increase circulating EETs in humans could provide a novel approach to improve insulin sensitivity and treat hypertension.

Novel insight into the dangerous connection between diabetes and heart failure

Heart failure (HF) affects approximately 1-2 % of the adult population. Diabetes mellitus (DM) is one of the most frequent comorbidities in HF, portending a worse prognosis. DM is associated with an increased risk of artery disease, and consequently of post-ischemic HF, but it may also alter directly the myocardial structure and function. Insights into the pathophysiological mechanisms of diabetic cardiomyopathy have been provided by both experimental and clinical investigations. In recent years, it has emerged that the fibrotic process is a result of the convergence of multiple neurohormonal alterations in diabetic cardiomyopathy at the basis of disease progression and phenotype determination: HF with reduced or preserved ejection fraction. Therapies for HF and DM should demonstrate an improved prognosis and have a neutral effect on glucose homeostasis and the risk of HF development.

New and Emerging Therapies and Targets: Beta-3 Agonists

While crucial for the acute physiologic response to stress, the adrenergic system may become maladaptive upon prolonged stimulation in the course of development of heart failure. This has been the basis for the development of beta-blocking therapies, targeting mainly beta1-2 adrenoreceptors (B1-2AR). The third isotype, B3AR, was more recently identified in cardiac myocytes and endothelial cells from human (and many other animal species), where its distinctive coupling to nitric oxide and antioxidant pathways suggested potential protective properties that were unexploited so far. The observation of beneficial effects of B3AR expression/activation on myocardial remodeling and the availability of specific agonists for clinical use now open the way for directly testing the hypothesis in heart failure patients. We will briefly review the specificities of B3AR signaling in the context of the cardiovascular adrenergic system, the evidence supporting its beneficial effects and outline an ongoing clinical trial using the B3AR agonist, mirabegron in patients with/at risk of developing heart failure with preserved ejection fraction (HFpEF).

Pharmacokinetic considerations in the treatment of hypertension in risperidone-medicated patients - thinking of clinically relevant CYP2D6 interactions

BACKGROUND

Treatment of arterial hypertension in patients with severe mental illnesses often results in polypharmacy, potentially leading to drug-drug interactions. The objective of the study was to analyse the in vivo inhibitory potential of two antihypertensive drugs, amlodipine and metoprolol on CYP2D6 catalysed 9-hydroxylation of risperidone (RIS).

METHODS

A therapeutic drug monitoring database with plasma concentrations of RIS and 9-hydroxyrisperidone (9-OH-RIS) of 1584 patients was analysed. Three groups were considered; a group of patients receiving RIS without a potentially cytochrome influencing co-medication (control group, R0, n=852), a group co-medicated with amlodipine (RA, n=27) and a group, co-medicated with metoprolol (RM, n=41). Plasma concentrations, concentration-to-dose ratios (C/Ds) of RIS, 9-OH-RIS and the active moiety (AM), as well as the metabolic ratios were computed and compared using the Kruskal-Wallis test, the Mann-Whitney U test and the Jonckheere-Terpstra test to determine the means and different patterns of distribution of plasma concentrations as well as the concentration-to-dose ratios.

RESULTS

The median daily dosage of RIS did not differ between the groups (p=0.708). No differences were found in median plasma concentrations of RIS, 9-OH-RIS and AM. However, concentration-to-dose ratios for RIS, 9-OH-RIS and AM were significantly higher in the amlodipine group (p=0.025, p=0.048 and p=0.005). In the metoprolol group, the concentration-to-dose ratio for RIS was significantly higher than in the control group (p=0.017), while the C/D for 9-OH-RIS and AM was not.

CONCLUSIONS AND LIMITATIONS

Our data show a potential pharmacokinetic interaction, most likely via CYP3A4 between amlodipine and RIS, reflected in significantly different C/Ds for RIS, 9-OH-RIS and AM. Although the interaction did not result in significantly higher plasma levels, changes in C/Ds and their distribution with regard to the median concentrations were observed.

Cardiac salvage by tweaking with beta-3-adrenergic receptors

Overstimulation of the orthosympathetic system leads to cardiovascular cell and tissue damage through prolonged activation of β-1-2 adrenergic receptors (BARs). The more recent identification of the third isotype of BAR (B3AR) in cardiac myocytes and endothelial cells with a distinctive coupling and effect on cardiac function and remodelling introduced a new facet to this paradigm. In particular, B3AR is up-regulated in cardiac disease and less prone to homologous desensitization, which may reinforce its influence on the diseased myocardium. Mice with transgenic cardiac-specific expression of the human B3AR are protected from cardiac hypertrophy and fibrosis in response to neurohormonal stimulation. B3AR has also been implicated in cardiac protection after ischaemia-reperfusion and the benefits of exercise on the heart. Many of these salvage mechanisms are mediated by B3AR coupling to nitric oxide synthase (eNOS and nNOS) and downstream cGMP/protein kinase G signalling. Notably, B3AR exerts antioxidant protective effects on these and other signalling elements, which may subserve its protective properties in the setting of chronic heart failure. Additional vasorelaxing properties and paracrine NO-mediated signalling by B3AR in endothelium, together with systemic metabolic effects on beige/brown fat complete the pleiotropic protective properties of this new therapeutic target.

Plasminogen activator inhibitor-1 concentrations and bone mineral density in postmenopausal women with type 2 diabetes mellitus

BACKGROUND

Women with type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) have a higher risk of fractures despite increased bone mineral density (BMD). In experimental studies a potential role of plasminogen activator inhibitor-1 (PAI-1) in bone remodeling is suggested but studies in humans are lacking. This is a first study in humans investigating whether circulated levels of PAI-1 in postmenopausal women with T2DM are related to BMD and adiposity.

METHODS

Anthropometric variables, PAI-1 and insulin levels, serum lipids and bone turnover markers were measured in 127 postmenopausal women with T2DM. A total of 117 female patients were divided according to lumbar spine BMD measurements via dual-energy x-ray absorptiometry in three groups: 47 with osteopenia, 21 with osteoporosis and 49 with normal BMD.

RESULTS

Diabetic patients with normal BMD had significantly higher BMI, greater waist circumference and lower bone turnover markers than diabetics with osteopenia and osteoporosis. PAI-1 was lower in diabetics with osteoporosis and osteopenia compared with diabetics with normal BMD. Multiple regression analysis revealed insulin, triglycerides levels, pyrilinks and beta blocker therapy to be the strongest predictors of PAI-1 levels. PAI-1 levels correlated with both L-BMD and hip BMD, but after adjustment for age and BMI association was no longer significant.

CONCLUSION

Our findings suggest that elevated PAI-1 levels are associated with higher BMD in obese diabetic patients but the possible implications of this finding and underlying mechanisms still remain unclear. Obviously, metabolic parameters, may affect both BMD and PAI-levels, and association of PAI-1 and BMD could be indirect. However, as pyrilinks is also independently and significantly negatively correlated to PAI-1 its direct involvement in bone metabolism is also plausible. Further investigations are needed to elucidate the nature of interaction of this matrix modulator in relation to energy and bone metabolism in humans.

Primary hypertension is a disease of premature vascular aging associated with neuro-immuno-metabolic abnormalities

There is an increasing amount of data indicating that primary hypertension (PH) is not only a hemodynamic phenomenon but also a complex syndrome involving abnormal fat tissue distribution, over-activity of the sympathetic nervous system (SNS), metabolic abnormalities, and activation of the immune system. In children, PH usually presents with a typical phenotype of disturbed body composition, accelerated biological maturity, and subtle immunological and metabolic abnormalities. This stage of the disease is potentially reversible. However, long-lasting over-activity of the SNS and immuno-metabolic alterations usually lead to an irreversible stage of cardiovascular disease. We describe an intermediate phenotype of children with PH, showing that PH is associated with accelerated development, i.e., early premature aging of the immune, metabolic, and vascular systems. The associations and determinants of hypertensive organ damage, the principles of treatment, and the possibility of rejuvenation of the cardiovascular system are discussed.

Pathophysiological Mechanisms and Correlates of Therapeutic Pharmacological Interventions in Essential Arterial Hypertension

Treating arterial hypertension (HT) remains a hard task. The hypertensive patient is often a subject with several comorbidities and metabolic abnormalities. Clinicians everyday have to choose the right drug for the single patient among the different classes of antihypertensives. Apart from lowering blood pressure, a main therapeutic target should be that of counteracting all the possible pathophysiological mechanisms involved in HT itself and in existing/potential comorbidities. All the ancillary positive and negative effects of the administered drugs should be considered: in particular, since hypertensive patients are often glucose intolerant/diabetic, carrier of serum lipids disorder, have already developed atherosclerotic diseases and endothelial dysfunction, they should not be treated with drugs negatively interfering with these conditions but with molecules that, if possible, improve them. The main pathophysiological mechanisms and correlates of therapeutic pharmacological interventions in essential HT are reviewed here.

[The role of β-blockers in patients with metabolic syndrome and hypertension]

The choice of treatment of patients with hypertension should not be based solely on the blood pressure value, because the risk of cardiovascular diseases are influenced by the presence and magnitude of other risk factors, too. The presence of a metabolic disease (diabetes mellitus, metabolic syndrome) itself categorizes the patient as a high risk individual. In such cases the use of combined treatment is usually considered. For example, in case of hypertension aggravated by left ventricular dysfunction, ischaemic heart disease or cardiac insufficiency, β-blocker treatment is usually included in the combination of the first setting.

β-Blockers in hypertension, diabetes, heart failure and acute myocardial infarction: a review of the literature

β-Blockers (BBs) are an essential class of cardiovascular medications for reducing morbidity and mortality in patients with heart failure (HF). However, a large body of data indicates that BBs should not be used as first-line therapy for hypertension (HTN). Additionally, new data have questioned the role of BBs in the treatment of stable coronary heart disease (CHD). However, these trials mainly tested the non-vasodilating β1 selective BBs (atenolol and metoprolol) which are still the most commonly prescribed BBs in the USA. Newer generation BBs, such as the vasodilating BBs carvedilol and nebivolol, have been shown not only to be better tolerated than non-vasodilating BBs, but also these agents do not increase the risk of diabetes mellitus (DM), atherogenic dyslipidaemia or weight gain. Moreover, carvedilol has the most evidence for reducing morbidity and mortality in patients with HF and those who have experienced an acute myocardial infarction (AMI). This review discusses the cornerstone clinical trials that have tested BBs in the settings of HTN, HF and AMI. Large randomised trials in the settings of HTN, DM and stable CHD are still needed to establish the role of BBs in these diseases, as well as to determine whether vasodilating BBs are exempt from the disadvantages of non-vasodilating BBs.

Antihypertensive drugs and glucose metabolism

Hypertension plays a major role in the development and progression of micro- and macrovascular disease. Moreover, increased blood pressure often coexists with additional cardiovascular risk factors such as insulin resistance. As a result the need for a comprehensive management of hypertensive patients is critical. However, the various antihypertensive drug categories have different effects on glucose metabolism. Indeed, angiotensin receptor blockers as well as angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitors have been associated with beneficial effects on glucose homeostasis. Calcium channel blockers (CCBs) have an overall neutral effect on glucose metabolism. However, some members of the CCBs class such as azelnidipine and manidipine have been shown to have advantageous effects on glucose homeostasis. On the other hand, diuretics and β-blockers have an overall disadvantageous effect on glucose metabolism. Of note, carvedilol as well as nebivolol seem to differentiate themselves from the rest of the β-blockers class, being more attractive options regarding their effect on glucose homeostasis. The adverse effects of some blood pressure lowering drugs on glucose metabolism may, to an extent, compromise their cardiovascular protective role. As a result the effects on glucose homeostasis of the various blood pressure lowering drugs should be taken into account when selecting an antihypertensive treatment, especially in patients which are at high risk for developing diabetes.

Anti-hypertensive drugs in children and adolescents

Worldwide the prevalence of essential hypertension in children and adolescents continues to increase. Traditionally providers have used “off-label” drugs to treat pediatric hypertension, meaning that rigorous clinical trials of these drugs have not been specifically performed in pediatric patient populations. Consequently providers have extrapolated dosing, safety and efficacy from trials in adults. This practice is sub-optimal as children demonstrate unique differences in drug metabolism and response. Use of unstudied or understudied drugs increases risk of adverse events and/or can lead to sub-optimal efficacy. Recognizing these concerns, regulatory agencies have created financial incentives for industry to conduct pediatric clinical trials. These incentives, coupled with the emerging pediatric hypertension epidemic, have spurred over 30 clinical trials of anti-hypertensive drugs over the past 15 years and have resulted in labeling of 10 new drugs by the United States Food and Drug Administration for treatment of hypertension in children and adolescents. Unfortunately the financial incentive structures focus on newer drugs and drug classes. Consequently there is now a relative dearth of trial data for older but sometimes commonly prescribed pediatric antihypertensive drugs. This article reviews recent pediatric antihypertensive drug trials with a focus on trial design and endpoints, drug dosing, safety, efficacy and specific drug indications. We also review the available data and experience for some of the more commonly prescribed, but less well studied “older” pediatric antihypertensive drugs.

Metabolic syndrome in children with chronic kidney disease and after renal transplantation

Visceral obesity and metabolic abnormalities typical for metabolic syndrome (MS) are the new epidemic in adolescence. MS is not only the risk factor for cardiovascular disease but also for chronic kidney disease (CKD). Thus, there are some reasons to recognize MS as a new challenge for pediatric nephrologists. First, hypertensive and diabetic nephropathy, the main causes of CKD in adults, both share the same pathophysiological abnormalities associated with visceral obesity and insulin resistance and have their origins in childhood. Secondly, as the obesity epidemic also affects children with CKD, MS emerges as the risk factor for progression of CKD. Thirdly, metabolic abnormalities typical for MS may pose additional risk for cardiovascular morbidity and mortality in children with CKD. Finally, although the renal transplantation reverses uremic abnormalities it is associated with an exposure to new metabolic risk factors typical for MS and MS has been found to be the risk factor for graft loss and cardiovascular morbidity after renal transplantation. MS is the result of imbalance between dietary energy intake and expenditure inducing disproportionate fat accumulation. Thus, the best prevention and treatment of MS is physical activity and maintenance of proper relationship between lean and fat mass.

Singular and combined effects of nebivolol and lifestyle modification on large artery stiffness in hypertensive adults

Background:

We hypothesized that the combination of nebivolol and lifestyle modification would reduce large artery stiffness in middle-aged and older hypertensive adults more than either intervention alone.

Methods:

To address this, 45 men and women (age 40–75 years) with stage I hypertension were randomized to receive either nebivolol (NB; forced titration to 10 mg OD; n = 15; age 57.2 ± 11.4 years; body mass index [BMI] 30.8 ± 5.8 kg/m2), lifestyle modification (LM; 5–10% weight loss via calorie restriction and physical activity; n = 15; age 52.7 ± 8.5 years; BMI 33.9 ± 7.2 kg/m2) or nebivolol plus lifestyle modification (NBLM; n = 15; age 58.9 ± 9.4 years; BMI 32.5 ± 4.9 kg/m2) for 12 weeks. β-stiffness index, a blood-pressure-independent measure of arterial stiffness, and arterial compliance were measured via high-resolution ultrasound and tonometry at baseline and after the 12-week intervention. There was no difference between groups in age, body weight or composition, blood pressure, or in β-stiffness index or arterial compliance at baseline (all p > 0.05).

Results:

Following the 12-week intervention, body weight decreased ~5% ( p < 0.05) in the LM and NBLM groups but did not change from baseline in the NB group ( p > 0.05). Supine brachial and carotid systolic and diastolic blood pressure declined following treatment in each of the groups ( p < 0.05). However, the magnitude of reduction was not different ( p < 0.05) between groups. β-stiffness index declined (–2.03 ± 0.60, –1.87 ± 0.83 and −2.51 ± 0.90 U) and arterial compliance increased similarly (both p > 0.05) in the NB, LM and NBLM groups, respectively.

Conclusion:

In summary, our findings indicate that the combination of nebivolol and lifestyle modification reduced large artery stiffness to a similar degree as either intervention alone in middle-aged and older hypertensive adults.

Fenofibrate lowers blood pressure in salt-sensitive but not salt-resistant hypertension

OBJECTIVE

Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor α agonists reduce blood pressure in rodents, but clinical trials provide conflicting data regarding their effects in humans. We tested the hypothesis that the effect of fenofibrate on blood pressure depends on salt sensitivity.

METHODS

Thirty-one hypertensive volunteers (17 salt-resistant, 14 salt-sensitive) completed a randomized, crossover, double-blind protocol with three dietary phases: low salt diet (10 mmol/day) followed by two consecutive high salt diets (200 mmol/day), each for 6 days. During high salt, volunteers were randomized to fenofibrate 160 mg/day or placebo. Hemodynamic and metabolic parameters were measured on the last morning of each treatment arm.

RESULTS

Fenofibrate reduced triglycerides similarly in salt-sensitive and salt-resistant volunteers. Fenofibrate did not affect blood pressure in salt-resistant volunteers. In salt-sensitive volunteers, fenofibrate significantly decreased diastolic (P = 0.02 versus placebo) and mean arterial (P = 0.04 versus placebo) blood pressure during high salt. In all volunteers, the decrease in systolic pressure during fenofibrate correlated inversely with the salt sensitivity of mean arterial pressure as a continuous variable. Fenofibrate significantly decreased heart rate, plasma renin activity, and renal vascular resistance during high salt in salt-sensitive volunteers, but not salt-resistant volunteers. Fenofibrate did not affect sodium excretion or weight gain during high salt. The effect of salt intake and fenofibrate on plasma and urine epoxyeicosatrienoic acid concentrations differed in salt-resistant and salt-sensitive volunteers.

CONCLUSION

Fenofibrate reduces blood pressure, heart rate and renal vasoconstriction in salt-sensitive volunteers, but not in salt-resistant volunteers. These findings have implications for the treatment of hyperlipidemia in hypertensive individuals.