Association of Osteopontin, Neopterin, and Myeloperoxidase With Stroke Risk in Patients With Prior Stroke or Transient Ischemic Attacks: Results of an Analysis of 13 Biomarkers From the Stroke Prevention by Aggressive Reduction in Cholesterol Levels Trial

An Adaptive SCG-ECG Multimodal Gating Framework for Cardiac CTA

Cardiovascular disease (CVD) is the leading cause of death worldwide. Coronary artery disease (CAD), a prevalent form of CVD, is typically assessed using catheter coronary angiography (CCA), an invasive, costly procedure with associated risks. While cardiac computed tomography angiography (CTA) presents a less invasive alternative, it suffers from limited temporal resolution, often resulting in motion artifacts that degrade diagnostic quality. Traditional ECG-based gating methods for CTA inadequately capture cardiac mechanical motion. To address this, we propose a novel multimodal approach that enhances CTA imaging by predicting cardiac quiescent periods using seismocardiogram (SCG) and ECG data, integrated through a weighted fusion (WF) approach and artificial neural networks (ANNs). We developed a regression-based ANN framework (r-ANN WF) designed to improve prediction accuracy and reduce computational complexity, which was compared with a classification-based framework (c-ANN WF), ECG gating, and US data. Our results demonstrate that the r-ANN WF approach improved overall diastolic and systolic cardiac quiescence prediction accuracy by 52.6% compared to ECG-based predictions, using ultrasound (US) as the ground truth, with an average prediction time of 4.83 ms. Comparative evaluations based on reconstructed CTA images show that both r-ANN WF and c-ANN WF offer diagnostic quality comparable to US-based gating, underscoring their clinical potential. Additionally, the lower computational complexity of r-ANN WF makes it suitable for real-time applications. This approach could enhance CTA's diagnostic quality, offering a more accurate and efficient method for CVD diagnosis and management.

Apolipoprotein E Plasma Concentrations Are Predictive of Recurrent Strokes: Insights From the SPARCL Trial

BACKGROUND

In the SPARCL (Stroke Prevention by Aggressive Reduction in Cholesterol Levels) trial, atorvastatin (80 mg per day) was compared with placebo in patients with recent stroke or transient ischemic attack and no known coronary artery disease. Given the central role of apoE (apolipoprotein E) in lipoprotein metabolism and in the central nervous system, we assessed the contribution of apoE to subsequent cerebrovascular and cardiovascular events in this trial.

METHODS AND RESULTS

ApoE concentrations and major isoforms (E2/E3/E4) were determined by liquid-chromatography high resolution mass-spectrometry in plasma samples collected at baseline from 4348 SPARCL participants. Patients in the lowest quartile were compared with those in the highest quartiles of apoE concentrations. Multivariable-adjusted hazard-ratios (HR) and 95% CIs were calculated using Cox proportional hazards regression models. We found a significant association between low apoE concentrations and the risk of recurrent strokes or cerebrovascular events (HR, 1.401 [95% CI, 1.154-1.701], P<0.001 and 1.467 [95% CI, 1.260-1.708], P<0.001) driven by a higher incidence of ischemic strokes and transient ischemic attacks in the entire cohort as well as separately in each treatment arm of SPARCL. In contrast, apoE concentrations did not significantly associate with the incidence of hemorrhagic strokes in SPARCL. We also found a significant association between reduced apoE concentrations and the risk of subsequent coronary events (HR, 1.373 ([95% CI, 1.064-1.772], P=0.015) in the entire cohort that was, however, significant only in the placebo arm of SPARCL.

CONCLUSIONS

Low apoE concentrations are predictive of recurring cerebrovascular events in patients with a history of stroke or transient ischemic attack.

REGISTRATION

URL: https://www.clinicaltrials.gov; Identifier: NTC00147602.

Effect of atorvastatin calcium plus clopidogrel in the treatment of patients with transient ischemic attacks and its effect on blood lipids and platelets

OBJECTIVE

To explore the clinical effect of atorvastatin calcium combined with clopidogrel in the treatment of patients with transient ischemic attacks (TIAs) and its effect on blood lipids and platelets.

METHODS

Low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C)], platelet-related parameters [prothrombin time (PT), activated partial thromboplastin time (APTT), platelet count (PLT)], incidence of cerebral infarction, and adverse reactions.

RESULTS

The clinical outcomes of the experimental group patients were significantly better than those of the control group patients (p < 0.05). The experimental group exhibited notably lower levels of TG, TC, and LDL-C compared to the control group (p < 0.05). Platelet-related indices-PT, APTT, and PLT-showed no significant differences between groups before and after treatment (p > 0.05). The incidence of cerebral infarction was notably lower in the experimental group (p < 0.005), while the occurrence of adverse reactions showed no significant difference between groups (p > 0.05).

CONCLUSION

Atorvastatin calcium combined with clopidogrel demonstrates a positive impact on individuals with TIAs by significantly lowering levels of LDL, total cholesterol, and triglycerides. However, it is noteworthy that platelet-related indices did not exhibit significant differences between the experimental and control groups. While the observed improvements in blood lipids are attributed to the effects of atorvastatin, the combination with clopidogrel did not show a substantial influence on platelet-related parameters. Thus, the overall therapeutic impact, particularly on platelet-related indices, may require further investigation and clarification. Despite these nuances, our findings suggest potential benefits in reducing the risk of adverse reactions and cerebral infarction, supporting the consideration of this approach for wider clinical use.

Associations of NETs with inflammatory risk and clinical predictive value in large artery atherosclerosis stroke: a prospective cohort study

Background and objective

Neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs) with inflammatory risk are important contributors to cardiovascular disease, but no definitive information is available in large artery atherosclerotic (LAA) stroke. This study aims to investigate the association between NETs with related inflammatory biomarkers and prognosis of LAA stroke in the Chinese population.

Methods

A prospective study involving 145 LAA stroke cases and 121 healthy controls was conducted. Serum levels of MPO-DNA, PAD4, HMGB1, C1q, AIM2, ASC, Caspase-1, IL-1β, IL-6, and IL-8 were determined in all participants. The biomarkers were detected at three time points after stroke onset (24 hours: T1, 48 hours: T2, 7 days: T3) for LAA stroke patients and once for controls. Patients were followed up for 2 years after the ischemic event.

Results

The serum MPO-DNA, PAD4, C1q, IL-1β, IL-6 and IL-8 reach their peak at 24 hours after stroke onset and show a decreasing trend during acute phase. MPO-DNA, AIM2 and IL-1β at baseline were associated with poor outcome at 3 months, further GMDR analysis revealed that the combination of MPO-DNA, AIM2 and IL-1β exert a synergistic effect on the prognosis of LAA stroke (OR: 8.75 95%CI (2.10-32.42)). For time-to-event analysis, MPO-DNA, Caspase-1 and IL-1β at baseline were predictors of MVEs after stroke (HR:4.04 (95%CI 1.28-12.70), 2.33 (95%CI 1.06-5.12) and 4.09 (95%CI 1.39-11.99), respectively).

Conclusions

NETs and related inflammatory biomarkers at baseline predicted outcome at 3 months and late major vascular events following LAA stroke, supporting a rationale of randomized trials for targeted therapy directed at high-risk patients with elevated baseline NETs and related inflammatory biomarkers.

Monocyte Chemoattractant Protein-1, Inflammatory Biomarkers, and Prognosis of Patients With Ischemic Stroke or Transient Ischemic Attack: Fndings From a Nationwide Registry Study

BACKGROUND

Recent Mendelian randomization and meta-analysis highlight the relevance of MCP-1 (monocyte chemoattractant protein-1) in stroke. We aimed to investigate the associations between MCP-1 and clinical outcomes in patients with ischemic stroke or transient ischemic attack and test whether inflammation mediates or jointly contributes to the relationships.

METHODS AND RESULTS

A total of 10 700 patients from the Third China National Stroke Registry study were included. Multivariable Cox regression was used for recurrent stroke and all-cause death, and logistic regression was used for poor functional outcome. Mediation analyses were performed to clarify whether inflammation mediates the associations. After adjusting for potential confounders, low MCP-1 level (<337.6 pg/mL) was associated with a reduced risk of all-cause death (hazard ratio [HR], 0.65 [95% CI, 0.51-0.82]) and poor functional outcome (odds ratio, 0.81 [95% CI, 0.70-0.94]) but was not associated with recurrent stroke (HR, 1.10 [95% CI, 0.95-1.27]), compared with high MCP-1 level (≥337.6 pg/mL). The association between MCP-1 and all-cause death was partially mediated by highly sensitive C-reactive protein, interleukin-6, and YKL-40 (Chitinase-3-like protein 1; mediated proportion: 7.4%, 10.5%, and 7.4%, respectively). The corresponding mediated proportion for poor functional outcome was 9.9%, 17.1%, and 7.1%, respectively. Patients with combined high levels of MCP-1 and inflammatory biomarkers had the highest risks of all-cause death and poor functional outcome.

CONCLUSIONS

Low plasma MCP-1 level was associated with decreased risks of all-cause mortality and poor functional outcome after ischemic stroke or transient ischemic attack. Inflammation partially mediated and jointly contributed to the associations.

Effects of peripheral blood cells on ischemic stroke: Greater immune response or systemic inflammation?

Ischemic stroke is still one of the most serious medical conditions endangering human health worldwide. Current research on the mechanism of ischemic stroke focuses on the primary etiology as well as the subsequent inflammatory response and immune modulation. Recent research has revealed that peripheral blood cells and their components are crucial to the ensuing progression of ischemic stroke. However, it remains unclear whether blood cell elements are principally in charge of systemic inflammation or immunological regulation, or if their participation is beneficial or harmful to the development of ischemic stroke. In this review, we aim to describe the changes in peripheral blood cells and their corresponding parameters in ischemic stroke. Specifically, we elaborate on the role of each peripheral component in the inflammatory response or immunological modulation as well as their interactions. It has been suggested that more specific therapies aimed at targeting peripheral blood cell components and their role in inflammation or immunity are more favorable to the treatment of ischemic stroke.

Genetics of ischemic stroke functional outcome

Ischemic stroke, which accounts for 87% of cerebrovascular accidents, is responsible for massive global burden both in terms of economic cost and personal hardship. Many stroke survivors face long-term disability-a phenotype associated with an increasing number of genetic variants. While clinical variables such as stroke severity greatly impact recovery, genetic polymorphisms linked to functional outcome may offer physicians a unique opportunity to deliver personalized care based on their patient's genetic makeup, leading to improved outcomes. A comprehensive catalogue of the variants at play is required for such an approach. In this review, we compile and describe the polymorphisms associated with outcome scores such as modified Rankin Scale and Barthel Index. Our search identified 74 known genetic polymorphisms spread across 48 features associated with various poststroke disability metrics. The known variants span diverse biological systems and are related to inflammation, vascular homeostasis, growth factors, metabolism, the p53 regulatory pathway, and mitochondrial variation. Understanding how these variants influence functional outcome may be helpful in maximizing poststroke recovery.

Targeting inflammation to reduce recurrent stroke

BACKGROUND

Approximately one in four stroke patients suffer from recurrent vascular events, underlying the necessity to improve secondary stroke prevention strategies. Immune mechanisms are causally associated with coronary atherosclerosis. However, stroke is a heterogeneous disease and the relative contribution of inflammation across stroke mechanisms is not well understood. The optimal design of future randomized control trials (RCTs) of anti-inflammatory therapies to prevent recurrence after stroke must be informed by a clear understanding of the prognostic role of inflammation according to stroke subtype and individual patient factors.

AIM

In this narrative review, we discuss (1) inflammatory pathways in the etiology of ischemic stroke subtypes; (2) the evidence on inflammatory markers and vascular recurrence after stroke; and (3) review RCT evidence of anti-inflammatory agents for vascular prevention.

SUMMARY OF REVIEW

Experimental work, genetic epidemiological data, and plaque-imaging studies all implicate inflammation in atherosclerotic stroke. However, emerging evidence also suggests that inflammatory mechanisms are also important in other stroke mechanisms. Advanced neuroimaging techniques support the role of neuroinflammation in blood-brain barrier dysfunction in cerebral small vessel disease (cSVD). Systemic inflammatory processes also promote atrial cardiopathy, incident and recurrent atrial fibrillation (AF). Although several inflammatory markers have been associated with recurrence after stroke, interleukin-6 (IL-6) and high-sensitivity C-reactive protein (hsCRP) are presently the most promising markers to identify patients at increased vascular risk. Several RCTs have shown that anti-inflammatory therapies reduce vascular risk, including stroke, in coronary artery disease (CAD). Some, but not all of these trials, selected patients on the basis of elevated hsCRP. Although unproven after stroke, targeting inflammation to reduce recurrence is a compelling strategy and several RCTs are ongoing.

CONCLUSION

Evidence points toward the importance of inflammation across multiple stroke etiologies and potential benefit of anti-inflammatory targets in secondary stroke prevention. Taking the heterogeneous stroke etiologies into account, the use of serum biomarkers could be useful to identify patients with residual inflammatory risk and perform biomarker-led patient selection for future RCTs.

Association between myeloperoxidase and the risks of ischemic stroke, heart failure, and atrial fibrillation: A Mendelian randomization study

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

The causality between myeloperoxidase (MPO) and cardiovascular disease still remains unclear. We performed a two-sample Mendelian randomization (MR) study to estimate the potential causal effect of MPO on the risks of ischemic stroke, ischemic stroke subtypes, heart failure (HF), and atrial fibrillation (AF).

METHODS AND RESULTS

Seventeen independent single-nucleotide polymorphisms associated with MPO levels were identified as instrumental variables from a European-descent genome-wide association study. Summary-level data on ischemic stroke originated from the Multiancestry Genome-wide Association Study of Stroke Consortium with 440 328 European individuals. We used the inverse-variance weighted method to assess the potential causality of plasma MPO with ischemic stroke and its subtypes in the main analysis. Genetically determined higher plasma MPO concentration was significantly associated with increased risks of ischemic stroke (odds ratio [OR] per standard deviation [SD] increase, 1.05; 95% confidence interval [CI], 1.02-1.09; P = 0.002) and cardioembolic stroke (CES) (OR per SD increase, 1.10; 95% CI, 1.03-1.18; P = 0.005), but was not associated with risks of large artery stroke or small vessel stroke. In the secondary analysis, MPO was associated with a high risk of HF (OR per SD increase, 1.05; 95% CI, 1.02-1.07; P = 0.001) and AF (OR per SD increase, 1.04; 95% CI, 1.01-1.07; P = 0.004). MR-Egger regression showed no directional pleiotropy for all associations, and the sensitivity analyses further confirmed these findings.

CONCLUSION

High plasma MPO levels were potentially associated with increased risks of ischemic stroke, CES, HF, and AF, suggesting that MPO plays an important role in the development of cardiovascular disease.

The Role of Oxidative Stress in Acute Ischemic Stroke-Related Thrombosis

Acute ischemic stroke is a serious life-threatening disease that affects almost 600 million people each year throughout the world with a mortality of more than 10%, while two-thirds of survivors remain disabled. However, the available treatments for ischemic stroke are still limited to thrombolysis and/or mechanical thrombectomy, and there is an urgent need for developing new therapeutic target. Recently, intravascular oxidative stress, derived from endothelial cells, platelets, and leukocytes, has been found to be tightly associated with stroke-related thrombosis. It not only promotes primary thrombus formation by damaging endothelial cells and platelets but also affects thrombus maturation and stability by modifying fibrin components. Thus, oxidative stress is expected to be a novel target for the prevention and treatment of ischemic stroke. In this review, we first discuss the mechanisms by which oxidative stress promotes stroke-related thrombosis, then summarize the oxidative stress biomarkers of stroke-related thrombosis, and finally put forward an antithrombotic therapy targeting oxidative stress in ischemic stroke.

Non-Canonical Functions of Myeloperoxidase in Immune Regulation, Tissue Inflammation and Cancer

Myeloperoxidase (MPO) is one of the most abundantly expressed proteins in neutrophils. It serves as a critical component of the antimicrobial defense system, facilitating microbial killing via generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS). Interestingly, emerging evidence indicates that in addition to the well-recognized canonical antimicrobial function of MPO, it can directly or indirectly impact immune cells and tissue responses in homeostatic and disease states. Here, we highlight the emerging non-canonical functions of MPO, including its impact on neutrophil longevity, activation and trafficking in inflammation, its interactions with other immune cells, and how these interactions shape disease outcomes. We further discuss MPO interactions with barrier forming endothelial and epithelial cells, specialized cells of the central nervous system (CNS) and its involvement in cancer progression. Such diverse function and the MPO association with numerous inflammatory disorders make it an attractive target for therapies aimed at resolving inflammation and limiting inflammation-associated tissue damage. However, while considering MPO inhibition as a potential therapy, one must account for the diverse impact of MPO activity on various cellular compartments both in health and disease.

Interleukin-6 and YKL-40 predicted recurrent stroke after ischemic stroke or TIA: analysis of 6 inflammation biomarkers in a prospective cohort study

OBJECTIVE

Contribution of individual and combined inflammatory markers in prognosis after stroke was still undefined. We aimed to investigate the association of systemic and local vascular inflammatory markers and recurrent stroke as well as impact on poor functional outcome.

METHODS

In this pre-specified substudy of the Third China National Stroke Registry (CNSR-III), 10,472 consecutive acute ischemic stroke or TIA patients with available centralized-measured levels of Interleukin-6 (IL-6), high sensitive C-reactive protein (hsCRP), IL-1 receptor antagonist (IL-1Ra), lipoprotein-associated phospholipase A₂ mass (Lp-PLA₂) and activity (Lp-PLA₂-A), and YKL-40 from 171 sites were enrolled. The primary outcomes consisted of stroke recurrence and poor functional outcome defined as modified Rankin Scale (mRS) score of 2-6 within 1 year.

RESULTS

There were 1026 (9.8%) and 2395 (23.4%) patients with recurrent stroke and poor functional outcome within 1 year. The highest quartiles of IL-6 (adjusted HR, 1.36; 95% CI 1.13-1.64; P = 0.001), hsCRP (adjusted HR, 1.41; 95% CI 1.17-1.69; P = 0.0003) and YKL-40 (adjusted HR, 1.28; 95% CI 1.06-1.56; P = 0.01) were associated with increased risk of recurrent stroke; and the highest quartiles of IL-6 (adjusted OR 1.93; 95% CI 1.64-2.27; P < 0.0001), IL-1Ra (adjusted OR 1.60; 95% CI 1.37-1.87; P < 0.0001), hsCRP (adjusted OR 1.60; 95% CI 1.37-1.86; P < 0.0001) and YKL-40 (adjusted OR 1.21; 95% CI 1.03-1.42; P = 0.02) were correlated with increased risk of poor functional outcome. In the multivariate stepwise regression analysis including all markers with backward selection, elevated levels of IL-6 or YKL-40 were associated with recurrent stroke (IL6: OR, 1.34; 95% CI 1.19-1.52; P < 0.0001; YKL-40: OR, 1.01; 95% CI 1.01-1.03; P = 0.004) and poor functional outcome (IL6: OR, 1.68; 95% CI 1.46-1.93; P < 0.0001; YKL-40: OR, 1.02; 95% CI 1.01-1.03; P = 0.0001). Adding IL-6 and YKL-40 significantly increased the area under the receiver operating characteristic curves for the prediction models of Essen Stroke Risk Score (0.03, P < 0.0001) and Totaled Health Risks in Vascular Events Score (0.07, P < 0.0001), and yielded continuous net reclassification improvement (19.0%, P < 0.0001; 33.0, P < 0.0001).

CONCLUSIONS

In the patients with ischemic stroke or TIA, IL-6 and YKL-40 were independently associated with recurrent stroke and poor functional outcome, and improved risk classification of clinical risk algorithms.

Neopterin and kynurenic acid as predictors of stroke recurrence and mortality: a multicentre prospective cohort study on biomarkers of inflammation measured three months after ischemic stroke

BACKGROUND

Chronic low-grade inflammation is associated with both ischemic stroke and sedentary behaviour. The aim of this study was to investigate the predictive abilities of biomarkers of inflammation and immune modulation associated with sedentary behaviour for ischemic stroke recurrence and mortality in a stroke population.

METHODS

Patients admitted to hospital for acute stroke were recruited to the prospective multicentre cohort study, the Norwegian Cognitive Impairment After Stroke (Nor-COAST) study, from May 2015 until March 2017. Patients with ischemic stroke, blood samples available from the three-month follow-up, and no stroke recurrence before the three-month follow-up were included. Serum was analysed for C-reactive protein (CRP) with high-sensitive technique, and plasma for interleukin-6 (IL-6), neopterin, pyridoxic acid ratio index (PAr-index: 4-pyridoxic acid: [pyrioxal+pyridoxal-5'-phosphate]) and kynurenic acid (KA). Ischemic stroke recurrence and death were identified by the Norwegian Stroke Registry and the Cause of Death Registry until 31 December 2018.

RESULTS

The study included 354 patients, 57% male, mean age 73 (SD 11) years, mean observation time 2.5 (SD 0.6) years, and median National Institute of Health Stroke Scale of 0 (IQR 1) at three months. CRP was associated with mortality (HR 1.40, CI 1.01, 1.96, p = 0.046), and neopterin was associated with the combined endpoint (recurrent ischemic stroke or death) (HR 1.52, CI 1.06, 2.20, p = 0.023), adjusted for age, sex, prior cerebrovascular disease, modified Rankin Scale, and creatinine. When adding neopterin and KA to the same model, KA was negatively associated (HR 0.57, CI 0.33, 0.97, p = 0.038), and neopterin was positively associated (HR 1.61, CI 1.02, 2.54, p = 0.040) with mortality. Patients with cardioembolic stroke at baseline had higher levels of inflammation at three months.

CONCLUSION

Neopterin might be a valuable prognostic biomarker in stroke patients. The use of KA as a measure of anti-inflammatory capacity should be investigated further.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

The study was registered at Clinicaltrials.gov ( NCT02650531 ). First posted on 08/01/2016.

Serum neopterin levels and their role in the prognosis of patients with ischemic stroke: A systematic review and meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

Neopterin is an inflammatory marker that is found to have prognostic value in cardiovascular diseases but its prognostic role in cerebrovascular diseases is not as clear. This study evaluates the prognostic role of neopterin in patients with ischemic stroke.

METHOD

Studies were identified after a literature search in electronic databases (Ovid, PubMed, Science Direct, and Wiley) and were selected based on precise eligibility criteria. Random-effects meta-analyses were performed to estimate mean difference in blood neopterin levels between ischemic stroke patients and healthy individuals or between severe and low/moderate ischemic stroke. Prognostic information contained in research articles of included studies was synthesized.

RESULTS

Fourteen studies (1823 ischemic stroke patients and 2189 healthy individuals) were included. Serum neopterin levels were 4.22 ng/ml [95% confidence interval (CI): 3.66, 4.77] in ischemic stroke patients and 1.80 ng/ml [95% CI: 1.13, 2.46] in normal individuals (mean difference 2.14 ng/ml [95% CI: 1.41, 2.87]; p < 0.00001). Neopterin levels were significantly higher in patients with severe than in low/moderate ischemic stroke (mean difference 1.36 ng/ml [95% CI: 0.58, 2.13]; p = 0.0006). In individual studies, higher serum neopterin levels were found to be predictive of secondary stroke, adverse clinical or functional outcomes, depression, and mortality. Neopterin levels correlated positively with high-sensitivity c reactive protein (hsCRP), National Institutes of Health Stroke Scale score, and infarct volume.

CONCLUSION

Blood neopterin levels are found significantly higher in ischemic stroke patients and correlated positively with hsCRP, disease severity, and infarct volume. Higher neopterin levels are associated with a worse prognosis of ischemic stroke.

DNA Hypomethylation of the MPO Gene in Peripheral Blood Leukocytes Is Associated with Cerebral Stroke in the Acute Phase

Dysregulation of the oxidant-antioxidant system contributes to the pathogenesis of cerebral stroke (CS). Epigenetic changes of redox homeostasis genes, such as glutamate-cysteine ligase (GCLM), glutathione-S-transferase-P1 (GSTP1), thioredoxin reductase 1 (TXNRD1), and myeloperoxidase (MPO), may be biomarkers of CS. In this study, we assessed the association of DNA methylation levels of these genes with CS and clinical features of CS. We quantitatively analyzed DNA methylation patterns in the promoter or regulatory regions of 4 genes (GCLM, GSTP1, TXNRD1, and MPO) in peripheral blood leukocytes of 59 patients with CS in the acute phase and in 83 relatively healthy individuals (controls) without cardiovascular and cerebrovascular diseases. We found that in both groups, the methylation level of CpG sites in genes TXNRD1 and GSTP1 was ≤ 5%. Lower methylation levels were registered at a CpG site (chr1:94,374,293, GRCh37 [hg19]) in GCLM in patients with ischemic stroke compared with the control group (9% [7%; 11.6%] (median and interquartile range) versus 14.7% [10.4%; 23%], respectively, p < 0.05). In the leukocytes of patients with CS, the methylation level of CpG sites in the analyzed region of MPO (chr17:56,356,470, GRCh3 [hg19]) on average was significantly lower (23.5% [19.3%; 26.7%]) than that in the control group (35.6% [30.4%; 42.6%], p < 0.05). We also found increased methylation of MPO in smokers with CS (27.2% [23.5%; 31.1%]) compared with nonsmokers with CS (21.7% [18.1%; 24.8%]). Thus, hypomethylation of CpG sites in GCLM and MPO in blood leukocytes is associated with CS in the acute phase.

Interleukin-6, C-reactive protein, fibrinogen, and risk of recurrence after ischaemic stroke: Systematic review and meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

Recent randomised trials showed benefit for anti-inflammatory therapies in coronary disease but excluded stroke. The prognostic value of blood inflammatory markers after stroke is uncertain and guidelines do not recommend their routine measurement for risk stratification.

METHODS

We performed a systematic review and meta-analysis of studies investigating the association of C-reactive protein (CRP), interleukin-6 (IL-6) and fibrinogen and risk of recurrent stroke or major vascular events (MVEs). We searched EMBASE and Ovid Medline until 10/1/19. Random-effects meta-analysis was performed for studies reporting comparable effect measures.

RESULTS

Of 2,515 reports identified, 39 met eligibility criteria (IL-6, n = 10; CRP, n = 33; fibrinogen, n = 16). An association with recurrent stroke was reported in 12/26 studies (CRP), 2/11 (fibrinogen) and 3/6 (IL-6). On random-effects meta-analysis of comparable studies, CRP was associated with an increased risk of recurrent stroke [pooled hazard ratio (HR) per 1 standard-deviation (SD) increase in loge-CRP (1.14, 95% CI 1.06-1.22, p < 0.01)] and MVEs (pooled HR 1.21, CI 1.10-1.34, p < 0.01). Fibrinogen was also associated with recurrent stroke (HR 1.26, CI 1.07-1.47, p < 0.01) and MVEs (HR 1.31, 95% CI 1.15-1.49, p < 0.01). Trends were identified for IL-6 for recurrent stroke (HR per 1-SD increase 1.17, CI 0.97-1.41, p = 0.10) and MVEs (HR 1.22, CI 0.96-1.55, p = 0.10).

CONCLUSION

Despite evidence suggesting an association between inflammatory markers and post-stroke vascular recurrence, substantial methodological heterogeneity was apparent between studies. Individual-patient pooled analysis and standardisation of methods are needed to determine the prognostic role of blood inflammatory markers and to improve patient selection for randomised trials of inflammatory therapies.

Osteopontin Predicts Three-Month Outcome in Stroke Patients Treated by Reperfusion Therapies

Establishing a prognosis at hospital admission after stroke is a major challenge. Inflammatory processes, hemostasis, vascular injury, and tissue remodeling are all involved in the early response to stroke. This study analyzes whether 22 selected biomarkers, sampled at admission, predict clinical outcomes in 153 stroke patients treated by thrombolysis and mechanical endovascular treatment (MET). Biomarkers were related to hemostasis (u-plasminogen activator/urokinase (uPA/urokinase), serpin E1/PAI-1, serpin C1/antithrombin-III, kallikrein 6/neurosin, alpha 2-macroglobulin), inflammation[myloperoxidase (MPO), chemokine ligand 2/monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 chemokine (CCL2/MCP-1), adiponectin, resistin, cell-free DNA (cDNA), CD40 Ligand (CD40L)], endothelium activation (Vascular cell adhesion protein 1 (VCAM-1) intercellular adhesion molecule 1 (ICAM-1), platelet endothelial cell adhesion molecule 1 (CD31/PECAM-1)], and tissue remodeling (total cathepsin S, osteopontin, cystatin C, neuropilin-1, matrix metallopeptidase 2 (MMP-2), matrix metallopeptidase 3 (MMP-3), matrix metallopeptidase 9 (MMP-9), matrix metallopeptidase 13 (MMP-13)]. Correlations between their levels and excellent neurological improvement (ENI) at 24 h and good outcomes (mRS 0-2) at three months were tested. Osteopontin and favorable outcomes reached the significance level (p = 0.008); the adjusted OR per SD increase in log-transformed osteopontin was 0.34 (95%CI, 0.18-0.62). The relationship between total cathepsin S and MPO with ENI, was borderline of significance (p = 0.064); the adjusted OR per SD increase in log-transformed of total cathepsin S and MPO was 0.54 (95%CI, 0.35-0.81) and 0.51 (95%CI, 0.32-0.80), respectively. In conclusion, osteopontin levels predicted three-month favorable outcomes, supporting the use of this biomarker as a complement of clinical and radiological parameters for predicting stroke prognosis.

Myeloperoxidase: A versatile mediator of endothelial dysfunction and therapeutic target during cardiovascular disease

Myeloperoxidase (MPO) is a prominent mammalian heme peroxidase and a fundamental component of the innate immune response against microbial pathogens. In recent times, MPO has received considerable attention as a key oxidative enzyme capable of impairing the bioactivity of nitric oxide (NO) and promoting endothelial dysfunction; a clinically relevant event that manifests throughout the development of inflammatory cardiovascular disease. Increasing evidence indicates that during cardiovascular disease, MPO is released intravascularly by activated leukocytes resulting in its transport and sequestration within the vascular endothelium. At this site, MPO catalyzes various oxidative reactions that are capable of promoting vascular inflammation and impairing NO bioactivity and endothelial function. In particular, MPO catalyzes the production of the potent oxidant hypochlorous acid (HOCl) and the catalytic consumption of NO via the enzyme's NO oxidase activity. An emerging paradigm is the ability of MPO to also influence endothelial function via non-catalytic, cytokine-like activities. In this review article we discuss the implications of our increasing knowledge of the versatility of MPO's actions as a mediator of cardiovascular disease and endothelial dysfunction for the development of new pharmacological agents capable of effectively combating MPO's pathogenic activities. More specifically, we will (i) discuss the various transport mechanisms by which MPO accumulates into the endothelium of inflamed or diseased arteries, (ii) detail the clinical and basic scientific evidence identifying MPO as a significant cause of endothelial dysfunction and cardiovascular disease, (iii) provide an up-to-date coverage on the different oxidative mechanisms by which MPO can impair endothelial function during cardiovascular disease including an evaluation of the contributions of MPO-catalyzed HOCl production and NO oxidation, and (iv) outline the novel non-enzymatic mechanisms of MPO and their potential contribution to endothelial dysfunction. Finally, we deliver a detailed appraisal of the different pharmacological strategies available for targeting the catalytic and non-catalytic modes-of-action of MPO in order to protect against endothelial dysfunction in cardiovascular disease.

Myeloperoxidase As a Multifaceted Target for Cardiovascular Protection

Significance: Myeloperoxidase (MPO) is a heme peroxidase that is primarily expressed by neutrophils. It has the capacity to generate several reactive species, essential for its inherent antimicrobial activity and innate host defense. Dysregulated MPO release, however, can lead to tissue damage, as seen in several diseases. Increased MPO levels in circulation are therefore widely associated with conditions of increased oxidative stress and inflammation. Recent Advances: Several studies have shown a strong correlation between MPO and cardiovascular disease (CVD), through which elevated levels of circulating MPO are linked to poor prognosis with increased risk of CVD-related mortality. Accordingly, circulating MPO is considered a "high-risk" biomarker for patients with acute coronary syndrome, atherosclerosis, heart failure, hypertension, and stroke, thereby implicating MPO as a multifaceted target for cardiovascular protection. Consistently, recent studies that target MPO in animal models of CVD have demonstrated favorable outcomes with regard to disease progression. Critical Issues: Although most of these studies have established a critical link between circulating MPO and worsening cardiac outcomes, the mechanisms by which MPO exerts its detrimental effects in CVD remain unclear. Future Directions: Elucidating the mechanisms by which elevated MPO leads to poor prognosis and, conversely, investigating the beneficial effects of therapeutic MPO inhibition on alleviating disease phenotype will facilitate future MPO-targeted clinical trials for improving CVD-related outcomes.

Vascular injury biomarkers and stroke risk

Objective

Because little is known about associations between biomarkers of vascular injury and stroke risk, we evaluated associations between plasma concentrations of 6 novel biomarkers of vascular injury and stroke risk in a population-based study.

Methods

A case–cohort subset of EPIC-Heidelberg (European Prospective Investigation for Cancer and Nutrition–Heidelberg) including incident stroke cases (n = 335) and a random subcohort (n = 2,418) was selected. Concentrations of intercellular adhesion molecule 3 (ICAM3), soluble E-selectin and P-selectin, soluble thrombomodulin (sTM), thrombopoietin, and glycoprotein IIb/IIIa were measured in baseline plasma samples. Weighted Cox regression analyses were used to assess associations between biomarker levels and stroke risk.

Results

Median follow-up in the subcohort and among cases was 9.8 (range, 0.1–12.5) years and 6.2 (range, 0.01–12.1) years, respectively. ICAM3 levels were associated with increased risk of incident stroke after multivariable adjustment (hazard ratio, highest vs lowest quartile: 1.64 [95% confidence interval, 1.15–2.32]; plinear trend < 0.001). This association was more apparent for ischemic (1.65 [1.12–2.45]; plinear trend < 0.01) than for hemorrhagic stroke (1.29 [0.60–2.78]; plinear trend = 0.3). We further observed a borderline significant trend for a positive association between sTM and overall stroke risk (1.47 [0.99–2.19]; plinear trend = 0.05).

Conclusions

In this population-based study, circulating levels of ICAM3, an adhesion molecule shed by leukocytes, were associated with increased risk of incident stroke. Further mechanistic studies are needed to elucidate the pathophysiology underlying this association.

Classification of evidence

This study provides Class II evidence that plasma levels of ICAM3 are associated with increased stroke risk.

Elevated circulating metalloproteinase 7 predicts recurrent cardiovascular events in patients with carotid stenosis: a prospective cohort study

BACKGROUND

Major adverse cardiovascular events are the main cause of morbidity and mortality over the long term in patients undergoing carotid endarterectomy. There are few reports assessing the prognostic value of markers of inflammation in relation to the risk of cardiovascular disease after carotid endarterectomy. Here, we aimed to determine whether matrix metalloproteinases (MMP-1, MMP-2, MMP-7, MMP-9 and MMP-10), tissue inhibitor of MMPs (TIMP-1) and in vivo inflammation studied by ¹⁸F-FDG-PET/CT predict recurrent cardiovascular events in patients with carotid stenosis who underwent endarterectomy.

METHODS

This prospective cohort study was carried out on 31 consecutive patients with symptomatic (23/31) or asymptomatic (8/31) severe (> 70%) carotid stenosis who were scheduled for carotid endarterectomy between July 2013 and March 2016. In addition, 26 healthy controls were included in the study. Plasma and serum samples were collected 2 days prior to surgery and tested for MMP-1, MMP-2, MMP-7, MMP-9, MMP-10, TIMP-1, high-density lipoprotein, low-density lipoprotein, high-sensitivity C-reactive protein and erythrocyte sedimentation rate. ¹⁸F-FDG-PET/CT focusing on several territories' vascular wall metabolism was performed on 29 of the patients because of no presurgical availability in 2 symptomatic patients. Histological and immunohistochemical studies were performed with antibodies targeting MMP-10, MMP-9, TIMP-1 and CD68.

RESULTS

The patients with carotid stenosis had significantly more circulating MMP-1, MMP-7 and MMP-10 than the healthy controls. Intraplaque TIMP-1 was correlated with its plasma level (r = 0.42 P = .02) and with ¹⁸F-FDG uptake (r = 0.38 P = .05). We did not find any correlation between circulating MMPs and in vivo carotid plaque metabolism assessed by ¹⁸F-FDG-PET. After a median follow-up of 1077 days, 4 cerebrovascular, 7 cardiovascular and 11 peripheral vascular events requiring hospitalization were registered. Circulating MMP-7 was capable of predicting events over and above the traditional risk factors (HR = 1.15 P = .006). When the model was associated with the variables of interest, the risk predicted by ¹⁸F-FDG-PET was not significant.

CONCLUSIONS

Circulating MMP-7 may represent a novel marker for recurrent cardiovascular events in patients with moderate to severe carotid stenosis. MMP-7 may reflect the atherosclerotic burden but not plaque inflammation in this specific vascular territory.

Myeloperoxidase and the Risk of CKD Progression, Cardiovascular Disease, and Death in the Chronic Renal Insufficiency Cohort (CRIC) Study

BACKGROUND

Myeloperoxidase (MPO) catalyzes the formation of reactive nitrogen species and levels are elevated in patients with chronic kidney disease (CKD). Although increased oxidative stress and inflammation are associated with progression of CKD and cardiovascular disease (CVD), relationships between MPO concentration, CKD progression, CVD, and death remain unclear.

STUDY DESIGN

Prospective cohort.

SETTING & PARTICIPANTS

3,872 participants from the Chronic Renal Insufficiency Cohort (CRIC) who had MPO measured at baseline.

EXPOSURE

Baseline MPO concentration.

OUTCOMES

CKD progression (kidney transplantation, dialysis initiation, or 50% decline in baseline estimated glomerular filtration rate [eGFR] and eGFR≤15mL/min/1.73m²), CVD (heart failure, myocardial infarction, or stroke), and death.

ANALYTICAL APPROACH

Cox proportional hazards models.

RESULTS

In adjusted analyses, higher MPO level (per 1-SD increase in log-transformed MPO) was associated with 10% higher risk for CKD progression (adjusted HR, 1.10; 95% CI, 1.01-1.19; P=0.03), 12% higher risk for CVD (adjusted HR, 1.12; 95% CI, 1.03-1.22; P<0.01), and 13% increased risk for death (adjusted HR, 1.13; 95% CI, 1.04-1.22; P<0.01). There was evidence for effect modification of the association of MPO level with CKD progression by baseline eGFR (P interaction=0.02), but not for CVD (P interaction=0.2) or death (P interaction=0.1). In stratified analyses, MPO level (per 1-SD increase in log-transformed MPO) was associated with greater risk for CKD progression among participants with eGFR>45mL/min/1.73m² (adjusted HR, 1.23; 95% CI, 1.03-1.46; P=0.02) compared with those with eGFR≤45mL/min/1.73m² (adjusted HR, 1.10; 95% CI, 1.02-1.20; P=0.02). The association of MPO level with CVD and death was no longer significant after adjustment for cardiac biomarkers.

LIMITATIONS

Potential residual confounding, lack of repeated measurements of MPO.

CONCLUSIONS

Higher MPO level was associated with increased risk for CKD progression, but not with CVD and death in patients with CKD from CRIC. Whether therapies aimed at reducing MPO activity can result in improved clinical outcomes is yet to be determined.

Blood Biomarkers for Stroke Diagnosis and Management

Biomarkers are objective indicators used to assess normal or pathological processes, evaluate responses to treatment and predict outcomes. Many blood biomarkers already guide decision-making in clinical practice. In stroke, the number of candidate biomarkers is constantly increasing. These biomarkers include proteins, ribonucleic acids, lipids or metabolites. Although biomarkers have the potential to improve the diagnosis and the management of patients with stroke, there is currently no marker that has demonstrated sufficient sensitivity, specificity, rapidity, precision, and cost-effectiveness to be used in the routine management of stroke, thus highlighting the need for additional work. A better standardization of clinical, laboratory and statistical procedures between centers is indispensable to optimize biomarker performance. This review focuses on blood biomarkers that have shown promise for translation into clinical practice and describes some newly reported markers that could add to routine stroke care. Avenues for the discovery of new stroke biomarkers and future research are discussed. The description of the biomarkers is organized according to their expected application in clinical practice: diagnosis, treatment decision, and outcome prediction.

Genetically Determined Levels of Circulating Cytokines and Risk of Stroke

BACKGROUND

Cytokines and growth factors have been implicated in the initiation and propagation of vascular disease. Observational studies have shown associations of their circulating levels with stroke. Our objective was to explore whether genetically determined circulating levels of cytokines and growth factors are associated with stroke and its etiologic subtypes by conducting a 2-sample Mendelian randomization (MR) study.

METHODS

Genetic instruments for 41 cytokines and growth factors were obtained from a genome-wide association study of 8293 healthy adults. Their associations with stroke and stroke subtypes were evaluated in the MEGASTROKE genome-wide association study data set (67 162 cases; 454 450 controls) applying inverse variance-weighted meta-analysis, weighted-median analysis, Mendelian randomization-Egger regression, and multivariable Mendelian randomization. The UK Biobank cohort was used as an independent validation sample (4985 cases; 364 434 controls). Genetic instruments for monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 (MCP-1/CCL2) were further tested for association with etiologically related vascular traits by using publicly available genome-wide association study data.

RESULTS

Genetic predisposition to higher MCP-1 levels was associated with higher risk of any stroke (odds ratio [OR] per 1 SD increase, 1.06; 95% CI, 1.02-1.09; P=0.0009), any ischemic stroke (OR, 1.06; 95% CI, 1.02-1.10; P=0.002), large-artery stroke (OR, 1.19; 95% CI, 1.09-1.30; P=0.0002), and cardioembolic stroke (OR, 1.14; 95% CI, 1.06-1.23; P=0.0004), but not with small-vessel stroke or intracerebral hemorrhage. The results were stable in sensitivity analyses and remained significant after adjustment for cardiovascular risk factors. Analyses in the UK Biobank showed similar associations for available phenotypes (any stroke: OR, 1.08; 95% CI, 0.99-1.17; P=0.09; any ischemic stroke: OR, 1.07; 95% CI, 0.97-1.18; P=0.17). Genetically determined higher MCP-1 levels were further associated with coronary artery disease (OR, 1.04; 95% CI, 1.00-1.08; P=0.04) and myocardial infarction (OR, 1.05; 95% CI, 1.01-1.09; P=0.02), but not with atrial fibrillation. A meta-analysis of observational studies showed higher circulating MCP-1 levels in patients with stroke in comparison with controls.

CONCLUSIONS

Genetic predisposition to elevated circulating levels of MCP-1 is associated with higher risk of stroke, in particular with large-artery stroke and cardioembolic stroke. Whether targeting MCP-1 or its receptors can lower stroke incidence requires further study.

Paraoxonase-1 and Symptomatic Status in Carotid Artery Disease

BACKGROUND

Paraoxonase-1 (PON-1) is a high-density lipoprotein (HDL)-associated hydrolase that appears to have a protective action against atherosclerosis. The aim of our study is to identify whether PON-1 levels may be associated with the manifestation of symptoms in patients with carotid artery stenosis.

METHODS

We studied all patients who underwent carotid endarterectomy in the Vascular Surgery Department of Laikon Hospital, Athens, Greece, from July 2012 to July 2014. Medical history was recorded and PON-1 glucose, total cholesterol, HDL cholesterol, low-density lipoprotein cholesterol, and triglycerides levels were measured. Variables were compared between symptomatic and asymptomatic patients. A receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve was constructed to evaluate the accuracy of PON-1 to predict symptoms.

RESULTS

A total of 74 patients were included, 41 were asymptomatic and the mean age was 68.5 years. The 2 groups appear to differ significantly with regards to the PON-1 levels, with the symptomatic group showing lower levels (5.3 ± 1.19 vs. 4.6 ± 1.36 ng/mL; P = 0.025). ROC analysis demonstrated an area under the curve of 0.654 (P = 0.023).

CONCLUSIONS

Reduced PON-1 levels showed a significant association with symptomatic status, which was independent of other traditional cardiovascular factors. Further studies are required to prospectively assess the role of PON-1 in predicting cerebrovascular events in patients with carotid artery disease.

Lipoprotein-Associated Phospholipase A2 Activity and Mass as Independent Risk Factor of Stroke: A Meta-Analysis

BACKGROUND

The association between lipoprotein-associated phospholipase A2 (Lp-PLA2) and stroke risk is inconsistent. We conducted a meta-analysis to determine whether elevated Lp-PLA2 is a risk factor for stroke.

METHODS

Studies were included if they reported Lp-PLA2 mass and/or activity levels and adjusted risk estimates of stroke. The primary outcome was overall stroke incidence. The combined results were shown as relative risks (RRs) with 95% confidence intervals (CI) for per 1 standard deviation (SD) higher value of Lp-PLA2 and the highest versus lowest Lp-PLA2 category.

RESULTS

Twenty-two studies involving 157,693 participants were included for analysis. After adjusting for conventional risk factors, the RRs for overall stroke with 1 SD higher Lp-PLA2 activity and mass were 1.07 (95% CI 1.02-1.13) and 1.11 (95% CI 1.04-1.19), respectively. The RRs of ischemic stroke with 1 SD higher Lp-PLA2 activity and mass were 1.08 (95% CI 1.01-1.15) and 1.11 (95% CI 1.02-1.22), respectively. When comparing the highest and lowest levels of Lp-PLA2, the RRs of stroke for Lp-PLA2 activity and mass were 1.26 (95% CI 1.03-1.54) and 1.56 (95% CI 1.21-2.00), respectively. Finally, when comparing the highest and lowest levels of Lp-PLA2, the pooled RRs of ischemic stroke for Lp-PLA2 activity and mass were 1.29 (95% CI 1.07-1.56) and 1.68 (95% CI 1.12-2.53), respectively.

CONCLUSIONS

Elevated baseline Lp-PLA2 levels, detected either by activity or mass, are associated with increased stroke risk.

Plasma Biomarkers as Potential Predictors of Functional Dependence in Daily Life Activities after Ischemic Stroke: A Single Center Study

Objective:

Despite advances made in the treatment of ischemic stroke, it still remains one of the leading causes of mortality and disability worldwide. The main objective of this study was to identify from a panel of 10 inflammatory markers and chemokines those biomarkers that have a potential predictive role in the evolution of disability and functional dependence in daily activities after an ischemic stroke.

Methods:

The study included 116 patients with ischemic stroke and 40 healthy volunteers matched for gender and age. Stroke severity was assessed by the National Institute of Health Stroke Scale (NIHSS) on admission and during hospitalization and functional mobility in daily activities by Barthel index (BI). Multiplex panel with 10 biomarkers [brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF)-AA, PDGF-AB/BB, neural cell adhesion molecule (NCAM), cathepsin D, soluble vascular cell adhesion molecule (sVCAM), soluble intercellular cell adhesion molecule (sICAM), myeloperoxidase (MPO), regulated on activation, normal T cell expressed and secreted (RANTES), plasminogen activator inhibitor (PAI)-1] was analyzed on days 1 and 5 after admission using the xMAP technology.

Results:

Plasma concentrations of RANTES and NCAM were significantly lower in patients with ischemic stroke compared with healthy controls, while MPO and sICAM were significantly higher in patients versus controls. Plasma concentrations of sICAM, sVCAM, and RANTES significantly decreased during the analyzed period. For the first-day measurement, the bivariate analysis revealed the association of NIHSS on admission with sVCAM, and on discharge negative association with PDGF-AA, PDGR-AB/BB, BDNF, and RANTES. Plasma levels of PDGF-AA, PDGF-AB/BB, BDNF, and RANTES were found to be significantly lower in patients with BI ≤ 80, on day 5 after disease onset. PDGF-AA, PDGF-AB/BB, and BDNF were univariate and multivariate predictors for functional dependence in daily life activity (BI ≤ 80), having a protective effect (odds ratio < 1).

Conclusion:

Plasma levels of BDNF, PDGF-AA, and PDGF-AB/BB are independent predictors for functional dependency in daily life activities and may be useful prognostic markers in the evaluation of ischemic stroke patients.

Myeloperoxidase - A bridge linking inflammation and oxidative stress with cardiovascular disease

Myeloperoxidase (MPO) is a member of the superfamily of heme peroxidases that is mainly expressed in neutrophils and monocytes. MPO-derived reactive species play a key role in neutrophil antimicrobial activity and human defense against various pathogens primarily by participating in phagocytosis. Elevated MPO levels in circulation are associated with inflammation and increased oxidative stress. Multiple lines of evidence suggest an association between MPO and cardiovascular disease (CVD) including coronary artery disease, congestive heart failure, arterial hypertension, pulmonary arterial hypertension, peripheral arterial disease, myocardial ischemia/reperfusion-related injury, stroke, cardiac arrhythmia and venous thrombosis. Elevated MPO levels are associated with a poor prognosis including increased risk for overall and CVD-related mortality. Elevated MPO may signify an increased risk for CVD for at least 2 reasons. First, low-grade inflammation and increased oxidative stress coexist with many metabolic abnormalities and comorbidities and consequently an elevated MPO level may represent an increased cardiometabolic risk in general. Second, MPO produces a large number of highly reactive species which can attack, destroy or modify the function of every known cellular component. The most common MPO actions relevant to CVD are generation of dysfunctional lipoproteins with an increased atherogenicity potential, reduced NO availability, endothelial dysfunction, impaired vasoreactivity and atherosclerotic plaque instability. These actions strongly suggest that MPO is directly involved in the pathophysiology of CVD. In this regard MPO may be seen as a mediator or an instrument through which inflammation promotes CVD at molecular and cellular level. Clinical value of MPO therapeutic inhibition remains to be tested.