Lesion of primary visual cortex in monkey impairs the inhibitory but not the facilitatory cueing effect on saccade

Visual instrumental learning in blindsight monkeys

Blindsight is the residual visuo-motor ability without subjective awareness observed after lesions of the primary visual cortex (V1). Various visual functions are retained, however, instrumental visual associative learning remains to be investigated. Here we examined the secondary reinforcing properties of visual cues presented to the hemianopic field of macaque monkeys with unilateral V1 lesions. Our aim was to test the potential role of visual pathways bypassing V1 in reinforcing visual instrumental learning. When learning the location of a hidden area in an oculomotor search task, conditioned visual cues presented to the lesion-affected hemifield operated as an effective secondary reinforcer. We noted that not only the hidden area location, but also the vector of the saccade entering the target area was reinforced. Importantly, when the visual reinforcement signal was presented in the lesion-affected field, the monkeys continued searching, as opposed to stopping when the cue was presented in the intact field. This suggests the monkeys were less confident that the target location had been discovered when the reinforcement cue was presented in the affected field. These results indicate that the visual signals mediated by the residual visual pathways after V1 lesions can access fundamental reinforcement mechanisms but with impaired visual awareness.

Neural Mechanism of Blindsight in a Macaque Model

Some patients with damage to the primary visual cortex (V1) exhibit visuomotor ability, despite loss of visual awareness, a phenomenon termed "blindsight". We review a series of studies conducted mainly in our laboratory on macaque monkeys with unilateral V1 lesioning to reveal the neural pathways underlying visuomotor transformation and the cognitive capabilities retained in blindsight. After lesioning, it takes several weeks for the recovery of visually guided saccades toward the lesion-affected visual field. In addition to the lateral geniculate nucleus, the pathway from the superior colliculus to the pulvinar participates in visuomotor processing in blindsight. At the cortical level, bilateral lateral intraparietal regions become critically involved in the saccade control. These results suggest that the visual circuits experience drastic changes while the monkey acquires blindsight. In these animals, analysis based on signal detection theory adapted to behavior in the "Yes-No" task indicates reduced sensitivity to visual targets, suggesting that visual awareness is impaired. Saccades become less accurate, decisions become less deliberate, and some forms of bottom-up attention are impaired. However, a variety of cognitive functions are retained such as saliency detection during free viewing, top-down attention, short-term spatial memory, and associative learning. These observations indicate that blindsight is not a low-level sensory-motor response, but the residual visual inputs can access these cognitive capabilities. Based on these results we suggest that the macaque model of blindsight replicates type II blindsight patients who experience some "feeling" of objects, which guides cognitive capabilities that we naïvely think are not possible without phenomenal consciousness.

Dissociable Cortical and Subcortical Mechanisms for Mediating the Influences of Visual Cues on Microsaccadic Eye Movements

Visual selection in primates is intricately linked to eye movements, which are generated by a network of cortical and subcortical neural circuits. When visual selection is performed covertly, without foveating eye movements toward the selected targets, a class of fixational eye movements, called microsaccades, is still involved. Microsaccades are small saccades that occur when maintaining precise gaze fixation on a stationary point, and they exhibit robust modulations in peripheral cueing paradigms used to investigate covert visual selection mechanisms. These modulations consist of changes in both microsaccade directions and frequencies after cue onsets. Over the past two decades, the properties and functional implications of these modulations have been heavily studied, revealing a potentially important role for microsaccades in mediating covert visual selection effects. However, the neural mechanisms underlying cueing effects on microsaccades are only beginning to be investigated. Here we review the available causal manipulation evidence for these effects' cortical and subcortical substrates. In the superior colliculus (SC), activity representing peripheral visual cues strongly influences microsaccade direction, but not frequency, modulations. In the cortical frontal eye fields (FEF), activity only compensates for early reflexive effects of cues on microsaccades. Using evidence from behavior, theoretical modeling, and preliminary lesion data from the primary visual cortex and microstimulation data from the lower brainstem, we argue that the early reflexive microsaccade effects arise subcortically, downstream of the SC. Overall, studying cueing effects on microsaccades in primates represents an important opportunity to link perception, cognition, and action through unaddressed cortical-subcortical neural interactions. These interactions are also likely relevant in other sensory and motor modalities during other active behaviors.

The posterior parietal cortex contributes to visuomotor processing for saccades in blindsight macaques

Patients with damage to the primary visual cortex (V1) lose visual awareness, yet retain the ability to perform visuomotor tasks, which is called “blindsight.” To understand the neural mechanisms underlying this residual visuomotor function, we studied a non-human primate model of blindsight with a unilateral lesion of V1 using various oculomotor tasks. Functional brain imaging by positron emission tomography showed a significant change after V1 lesion in saccade-related visuomotor activity in the intraparietal sulcus area in the ipsi- and contralesional posterior parietal cortex. Single unit recordings in the lateral bank of the intraparietal sulcus (lbIPS) showed visual responses to targets in the contralateral visual field on both hemispheres. Injection of muscimol into the ipsi- or contralesional lbIPSs significantly impaired saccades to targets in the V1 lesion-affected visual field, differently from previous reports in intact animals. These results indicate that the bilateral lbIPSs contribute to visuomotor function in blindsight.

Rikako Kato et al. use PET imaging to examine altered brain activity in blindsight macaques that lack visual awareness yet can still perform visuomotor tasks. They report that blindsight macaques exhibit a significant change in activity of the lateral bank of the intraparietal sulcus (lbIPS) bilaterally, and injection of muscimol into this region impairs visuomotor performance. These results suggest a role for the bilateral lbIPS in visuomotor function in blindsight conditions.

Dissecting the circuit for blindsight to reveal the critical role of pulvinar and superior colliculus

In patients with damage to the primary visual cortex (V1), residual vision can guide goal-directed movements to targets in the blind field without awareness. This phenomenon has been termed blindsight, and its neural mechanisms are controversial. There should be visual pathways to the higher visual cortices bypassing V1, however some literature propose that the signal is mediated by the superior colliculus (SC) and pulvinar, while others claim the dorsal lateral geniculate nucleus (dLGN) transmits the signal. Here, we directly test the role of SC to ventrolateral pulvinar (vlPul) pathway in blindsight monkeys. Pharmacological inactivation of vlPul impairs visually guided saccades (VGS) in the blind field. Selective and reversible blockade of the SC-vlPul pathway by combining two viral vectors also impairs VGS. With these results we claim the SC-vlPul pathway contributes to blindsight. The discrepancy would be due to the extent of retrograde degeneration of dLGN and task used for assessment.

Effects of a pretarget distractor on saccade reaction times across space and time in monkeys and humans

Previous studies have shown that the influence of a behaviorally irrelevant distractor on saccade reaction times (SRTs) varies depending on the temporal and spatial relationship between the distractor and the saccade target. We measured distractor influence on SRTs to a subsequently presented target, varying the spatial location and the timing between the distractor and the target. The distractor appeared at one of four equally eccentric locations, followed by a target (either 50 ms or 200 ms after) at one of 136 different locations encompassing an area of 20° square. We extensively tested two humans and two monkeys on this task to determine interspecies similarities and differences, since monkey neurophysiology is often used to interpret human behavioral findings. Results were similar across species; for the short interval (50 ms), SRTs were shortest to a target presented close to or at the distractor location and increased primarily as a function of the distance from the distractor. There was also an effect of distractor-target direction and visual field. For the long interval (200 ms) the results were inverted; SRTs were longest for short distances between the distractor and target and decreased as a function of distance from distractor. Both SRT patterns were well captured by a two-dimensional dynamic field model with short-distance excitation and long-distance inhibition, based upon known functional connectivity found in the superior colliculus that includes wide-spread excitation and inhibition. Based on these findings, we posit that the different time-dependent patterns of distractor-related SRTs can emerge from the same underlying neuronal mechanisms common to both species.

Informative Cues Facilitate Saccadic Localization in Blindsight Monkeys

Patients with damage to the primary visual cortex (V1) demonstrate residual visual performance during laboratory tasks despite denying having a conscious percept. The mechanisms behind such performance, often called blindsight, are not fully understood, but the use of surgically-induced unilateral V1 lesions in macaque monkeys provides a useful animal model for exploring such mechanisms. For example, V1-lesioned monkeys localize stimuli in a forced-choice condition while at the same time failing to report awareness of identical stimuli in a yes-no detection condition, similar to human patients. Moreover, residual cognitive processes, including saliency-guided eye movements, bottom-up attention with peripheral non-informative cues, and spatial short-term memory, have all been demonstrated in these animals. Here we examined whether post-lesion residual visuomotor processing can be modulated by top-down task knowledge. We tested two V1-lesioned monkeys with a visually guided saccade task in which we provided an informative foveal pre-cue about upcoming target location. Our monkeys fixated while we presented a leftward or rightward arrow (serving as a pre-cue) superimposed on the fixation point (FP). After various cue-target onset asynchronies (CTOAs), a saccadic target (of variable contrast across trials) was presented either in the affected (contra-lesional) or seeing (ipsi-lesional) hemifield. Critically, target location was in the same hemifield that the arrow pre-cue pointed towards in 80% of the trials (valid-cue trials), making the cue highly useful for task performance. In both monkeys, correct saccade reaction times were shorter during valid than invalid trials. Moreover, in one monkey, the ratio of correct saccades towards the affected hemifield was higher during valid than invalid trials. We replicated both reaction time and correct ratio effects in the same monkey using a symbolic color cue. These results suggest that V1-lesion monkeys can use informative cues to localize stimuli in the contra-lesional hemifield, consistent with reports of a human blindsight subject being able to direct attention in cueing paradigms. Because the superior colliculus (SC) may contribute to residual visual capabilities after V1 lesions, and because this structure is important for controlling attentional resources, we hypothesize that our results reflect, among others, SC involvement in integrating top-down task knowledge for guiding orienting behavior.

Spatio-temporal response properties of local field potentials in the primate superior colliculus

Local field potentials (LFPs) are becoming increasingly popular in neurophysiological studies. However, to date, most of the knowledge about LFPs has been obtained from cortical recordings. Here, we recorded single unit activity (SUA) and LFPs simultaneously from the superior colliculus (SC) of behaving rhesus monkeys. The SC is a midbrain structure that plays a central role in the visual orienting response. Previous studies have characterised the visual and visuomotor response properties of SUA in the superficial layers of the SC and the intermediate layers of the SC, respectively. We found that the signal properties of SUA were well preserved in the LFPs recorded from the SC. The SUA and LFPs had similar spatial and temporal properties, and the response properties of LFPs differed across layers, i.e. purely visual in the superficial layers of the SC but showing significant motor responses in the intermediate layers of the SC. There were also differences between SUA and LFPs. LFPs showed a significant reversal of activity following the phasic visual response, suggesting that the neighboring neurons were suppressed. The results indicate that the LFP can be used as a reliable measure of the SC activity in lieu of SUA, and open up a new way to assess sensorimotor processing within the SC.

Inhibition of Return Impairs Phosphene Detection

Efficient visual exploration requires the ability to select possible target locations via spatial attention and to deselect previously inspected locations via inhibition of return (IOR). Although a great deal is known about the effects of spatial attention on processing in visual cortex, much less is known about the effects of IOR on early visual areas. One possibility is that IOR acts in an opposite way to spatial attention, such that, whereas spatial attention enhances target related neural signals in visual cortex, IOR suppress target-related signals. Using a novel dual-coil TMS protocol, we found that IOR reduced the probability of detecting a TMS-induced phosphene in extrastriate cortex (V5). Specifically, a nonpredictive spatial precue presented 500 or 800 msec before stimulation significantly reduced the probability of detecting a phosphene when the precue appeared contralaterally to the site of stimulation (i.e., ipsilaterally to the potential location of the phosphene), compared with ipsilaterally or centrally presented cues. This result demonstrates that IOR facilitates visual exploration by directly affecting the strength of target-related signals in extrastriate visual cortex. This result is consistent with neurophysiological models of attention, which postulate that IOR modulates perception by biasing competition between sensory representations.

Residual attention guidance in blindsight monkeys watching complex natural scenes

Patients with damage to primary visual cortex (V1) demonstrate residual performance on laboratory visual tasks despite denial of conscious seeing (blindsight) [1]. After a period of recovery, which suggests a role for plasticity [2], visual sensitivity higher than chance is observed in humans and monkeys for simple luminance-defined stimuli, grating stimuli, moving gratings, and other stimuli [3-7]. Some residual cognitive processes including bottom-up attention and spatial memory have also been demonstrated [8-10]. To date, little is known about blindsight with natural stimuli and spontaneous visual behavior. In particular, is orienting attention toward salient stimuli during free viewing still possible? We used a computational saliency map model to analyze spontaneous eye movements of monkeys with blindsight from unilateral ablation of V1. Despite general deficits in gaze allocation, monkeys were significantly attracted to salient stimuli. The contribution of orientation features to salience was nearly abolished, whereas contributions of motion, intensity, and color features were preserved. Control experiments employing laboratory stimuli confirmed the free-viewing finding that lesioned monkeys retained color sensitivity. Our results show that attention guidance over complex natural scenes is preserved in the absence of V1, thereby directly challenging theories and models that crucially depend on V1 to compute the low-level visual features that guide attention.

Contribution of the retino-tectal pathway to visually guided saccades after lesion of the primary visual cortex in monkeys

Previous reports on 'blindsight' have shown that some patients with lesions of the primary visual cortex (V1) could localize visual targets in their scotoma with hand and/or eye movements without visual awareness. A role of the retino-tectal pathway on residual vision has been proposed but the direct evidence for this still remains sparse. To examine this possibility, we inactivated the superior colliculus (SC) of unilateral V1-lesioned monkeys using microinjections of muscimol, and analysed the effects on visually guided saccades. Following muscimol injections into the contralesional SC, the monkeys performed the visually guided saccade task with relatively minor deficits. The effects of ipsilesional SC inactivation were more severe. After injections, the monkeys failed to localize the target within the visual field represented at the injection site on the SC map. The effects of ipsilesional SC inactivation may result from sensory deficits, motor deficits or a combination of both. To examine these possibilities, we tested the effects of SC inactivation on the motor system by investigating spontaneous saccades. After inactivation of the ipsilesional SC, spontaneous saccades toward the injection site were not abolished, suggesting that impairment of visually guided saccades following inactivation of the ipsilesional SC could not be explained solely by a motor deficit and was primarily due to a visual deficit, presumably by interfering with processing in the superficial layer. We conclude that the retino-tectal pathway plays an essential role in residual vision after V1 lesion. The results suggest that this pathway may be involved in mediating unconscious vision in blindsight patients.

Neural substrate of spatial memory in the superior colliculus after damage to the primary visual cortex

In the primate brain, the primary visual cortex (V1) is a major source of visual information processing in the cerebral cortex, although some patients and monkeys with damage to the V1 show visually guided behaviors in the visual field affected by the damage. Until now, behaviors of the surviving brain regions after damage to V1 and their contribution to the residual visual functions remain unclear. Here, we report that the monkeys with a unilateral lesion of V1 can make not only visually guided saccades but also memory-guided saccades (MGS) into the affected visual field. Furthermore, while the monkeys were performing the MGS task, sustained activity was observed in a large fraction of the neurons in the superior colliculus ipsilateral to the lesion, which has been supposed as a key node for recovery after damage to V1. These neurons maintained the spatial information throughout the delay period regardless of whether they exhibited saccadic bursts or not, which was not the case on the intact side. Error analysis revealed that the sustained activity was correlated with monkeys' behavioral outcome. These results suggest that the ipsilesional SC might function as a neural substrate for spatial memory in the affected visual field. Our findings provide new insight into the understanding of the compensatory mechanisms after damage to V1.