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Kitayama S, Salvador CE. Cultural Psychology: Beyond East and West. Annu Rev Psychol 2024; 75:495-526. [PMID: 37585666 DOI: 10.1146/annurev-psych-021723-063333] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 08/18/2023]
Abstract
Research in cultural psychology over the last three decades has revealed the profound influence of culture on cognitive, emotional, and motivational processes shaping individuals into active agents. This article aims to show cultural psychology's promise in three key steps. First, we review four notable cultural dimensions believed to underlie cultural variations: independent versus interdependent self, individualism versus collectivism, tightness versus looseness of social norms, and relational mobility. Second, we examine how ecology and geography shape human activities and give rise to organized systems of cultural practices and meanings, called eco-cultural complexes. In turn, the eco-cultural complex of each zone is instrumental in shaping a wide range of psychological processes, revealing a psychological diversity that extends beyond the scope of the current East-West literature. Finally, we examine some of the non-Western cultural zones present today, including Arab, East Asian, Latin American, and South Asian zones, and discuss how they may have contributed, to varying degrees, to the formation of the contemporary Western cultural zone.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shinobu Kitayama
- Department of Psychology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan, USA;
| | - Cristina E Salvador
- Department of Psychology and Neuroscience, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina, USA;
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2
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Ho S, Kozhevnikov M. Cognitive style and creativity: The role of education in shaping cognitive style profiles and creativity of adolescents. BRITISH JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY 2023; 93:978-996. [PMID: 37211361 DOI: 10.1111/bjep.12615] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/20/2022] [Revised: 05/08/2023] [Accepted: 05/09/2023] [Indexed: 05/23/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Previous research on cognitive styles (CSs) has often overlooked their complexity and the effect of the environment on their development. While research supports visual abilities as predictors of domain-specific creativity, there is a lack of studies on the predictive power of CS in relation to creativity beyond abilities. AIMS The current study aimed to explore the validity of the CS construct as environmentally sensitive individual differences in cognition. We examined the internal structure of the CS construct, its predictive power in creativity beyond visual abilities, and how CSs of Singaporean secondary school students are shaped with age under specific sociocultural influences (Singapore's emphasis on STEM disciplines). SAMPLE Data were collected from 347 students aged 13-16 from a secondary school in Singapore. METHODS Students were administered nine tasks assessing their visual abilities and learning preferences, artistic and scientific creativity, and questionnaires assessing their CS profiles. RESULTS The confirmatory factor analyses provided evidence for a matrix-type CS structure consisting of four orthogonal CS dimensions and third levels of information processing. Structural equation models demonstrated significant contributions of context independence and intuitive processing to artistic and scientific creativity, respectively, beyond visual abilities. The results also suggested that Singapore's education system could be contributing to significantly shaping adolescents' CS profiles. CONCLUSIONS Our findings support the validity of CS as individual differences in cognition that develop to cope with environmental demands. They highlight the importance of providing an appropriate environment in shaping adolescents' CS profiles to support the development of domain-specific creativity according to their strengths and talent.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shuen Ho
- Department of Psychology, National University of Singapore, Singapore City, Singapore
| | - Maria Kozhevnikov
- Department of Psychology, National University of Singapore, Singapore City, Singapore
- Martinos Center for Biomedical Imaging and Harvard Medical School, Charlestown, MA, USA
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Atilla F, Klomberg B, Cardoso B, Cohn N. Background check: cross-cultural differences in the spatial context of comic scenes. MULTIMODAL COMMUNICATION 2023; 12:179-189. [PMID: 38144414 PMCID: PMC10740350 DOI: 10.1515/mc-2023-0027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2023] [Accepted: 10/16/2023] [Indexed: 12/26/2023]
Abstract
Cognitive research points towards cultural differences in the way people perceive and express scenes. Whereas people from Western cultures focus more on focal objects, those from East Asia have been shown to focus on the surrounding context. This paper examines whether these cultural differences are expressed in complex multimodal media such as comics. We compared annotated panels across comics from six countries to examine how backgrounds convey contextual information of scenes in explicit or implicit ways. Compared to Western comics from the United States and Spain, East Asian comics from Japan and China expressed the context of scenes more implicitly. In addition, Nigerian comics moderately emulated American comics in background use, while Russian comics emulated Japanese manga, consistent with their visual styles. The six countries grouped together based on whether they employed more explicit strategies such as detailed, depicted backgrounds, or implicit strategies such as leaving the background empty. These cultural differences in background use can be attributed to both cognitive patterns of attention and comics' graphic styles. Altogether, this study provides support for cultural differences in attention manifesting in visual narratives, and elucidates how spatial relationships are depicted in visual narratives across cultures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fred Atilla
- Department of Cognitive Science and Artificial Intelligence, Tilburg University, Tilburg, The Netherlands
| | - Bien Klomberg
- Department of Communication and Cognition, Tilburg University, Tilburg, The Netherlands
| | - Bruno Cardoso
- Department of Communication and Cognition, Tilburg University, Tilburg, The Netherlands
| | - Neil Cohn
- Department of Communication and Cognition, Tilburg University, Tilburg, The Netherlands
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Šašinková A, Čeněk J, Ugwitz P, Tsai JL, Giannopoulos I, Lacko D, Stachoň Z, Fitz J, Šašinka Č. Exploring cross-cultural variations in visual attention patterns inside and outside national borders using immersive virtual reality. Sci Rep 2023; 13:18852. [PMID: 37914809 PMCID: PMC10620163 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-023-46103-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/12/2023] [Accepted: 10/27/2023] [Indexed: 11/03/2023] Open
Abstract
We examined theories of cross-cultural differences in cognitive style on a sample of 242 participants representing five cultural groups (Czechia, Ghana, eastern and western Turkey, and Taiwan). The experiment involved immersive virtual environments consisting of two salient focal objects and a complex background as stimuli, which were presented using virtual reality headsets with integrated eye-tracking devices. The oculomotor patterns confirmed previous general conclusions that Eastern cultures have a more holistic cognitive style, while Western cultures predominantly have an analytic cognitive style. The differences were particularly noticeable between Taiwan and the other samples. However, we found that the broader cultural background of each group was perhaps just as important as geographical location or national boundaries. For example, observed differences between Eastern (more holistic style) and Western Turkey (more analytic style), suggest the possible influence of varying historical and cultural characteristics on the cognitive processing of complex visual stimuli.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alžběta Šašinková
- Department of Information and Library Studies, Faculty of Arts, Masaryk University, Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Jiří Čeněk
- Department of Information and Library Studies, Faculty of Arts, Masaryk University, Brno, Czech Republic.
- Department of Social Studies, Faculty of Regional Development and International Studies, Mendel University in Brno, Brno, Czech Republic.
| | - Pavel Ugwitz
- Department of Information and Library Studies, Faculty of Arts, Masaryk University, Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Jie-Li Tsai
- Department of Psychology, Research Center for Mind, Brain, and Learning, National Chengchi University, Taipei, Taiwan, ROC
| | - Ioannis Giannopoulos
- Department of Geodesy and Geoinformation, Vienna University of Technology, Vienna, Austria
| | - David Lacko
- Department of Information and Library Studies, Faculty of Arts, Masaryk University, Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Zdeněk Stachoň
- Department of Information and Library Studies, Faculty of Arts, Masaryk University, Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Jan Fitz
- Department of Information and Library Studies, Faculty of Arts, Masaryk University, Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Čeněk Šašinka
- Department of Information and Library Studies, Faculty of Arts, Masaryk University, Brno, Czech Republic
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Memory Monitoring and Control in Japanese and German Preschoolers. Mem Cognit 2023; 51:708-717. [PMID: 34919202 DOI: 10.3758/s13421-021-01263-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 11/30/2021] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Prior studies explored the early development of memory monitoring and control. However, little work has examined cross-cultural similarities and differences in metacognitive development in early childhood. In the present research, we investigated a total of 100 Japanese and German preschool-aged children's memory monitoring and control in a visual perception task. After seeing picture items, some of which were repeated, children were presented with picture pairs, one of which had been presented earlier and the other was a novel item. They then were asked to identify the previously presented picture. Children were also asked to evaluate their confidence about their selection, and to sort the responses to be used for being awarded with a prize at the end of the test. Both groups similarly expressed more confidence in the accurately remembered items than in the inaccurately remembered items, and their sorting decision was based on their subjective confidence. Japanese children's sorting more closely corresponded to memory accuracy than German children's sorting, however. These findings were further confirmed by a hierarchical Bayesian estimation of metacognitive efficiency. The present findings therefore suggest that early memory monitoring and control have both culturally similar and diverse aspects. The findings are discussed in light of broader sociocultural influences on metacognition.
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Roshchina Y, Roshchin S, Rozhkova K. Determinants of COVID-19 vaccine hesitancy and resistance in Russia. Vaccine 2022; 40:5739-5747. [PMID: 36050249 PMCID: PMC9411140 DOI: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2022.08.042] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/23/2021] [Revised: 07/27/2022] [Accepted: 08/18/2022] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Vaccination is the main tool available to handle the COVID-19 pandemic globally. Though no vaccine is proven to be 100% effective, vaccination secures against getting seriously ill and dying from the disease. Russia announced the development of its first domestic vaccine back in August 2020 and launched the nationwide immunization campaign at the beginning of 2021. Despite these achievements, as of mid-October 2021, only 36% of the population got at least one shot of the vaccine. Massive vaccination hesitancy and refusal pose a great threat to public health and postpone social and economic recovery. Using nationally representative data from the general adult population of Russia, this study explores the scope of vaccination hesitancy and refusal as well as the determinants of vaccination attitudes. The results suggest that only 45% of the Russian population demonstrated positive attitudes towards the COVID-19 vaccination prior to the launch of a nationwide vaccination program. We analyze a wide array of demographic, socio-economic, and health-related factors in relation to vaccination intentions and explore the deep-rooted causes of vaccination reluctance by looking at personality traits, religiosity, and trust. The obtained results are vital for designing policy measures to promote vaccination.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yana Roshchina
- Center for Longitudinal Studies and Laboratory for Studies in Economic Sociology, Department of Sociology, National Research University Higher School of Economics, 11 Myasnitskaya, Moscow 101000, Russian Federation.
| | - Sergey Roshchin
- Laboratory for Labor Market Studies, Faculty of Economic Sciences, National Research University Higher School of Economics, 11 Pokrovsky Boulevard, Moscow 109028, Russian Federation.
| | - Ksenia Rozhkova
- Laboratory for Labor Market Studies, Faculty of Economic Sciences, National Research University Higher School of Economics, 11 Pokrovsky Boulevard, Moscow 109028, Russian Federation.
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Liu W, Dai Z, Yang S, Ng SH, Zhang X, Peng S. Chinese Regional Differences and Commonality in Field-Independence and Field-Dependence: An Implicit Biculturalism Model. Front Psychol 2022; 13:731722. [PMID: 35677132 PMCID: PMC9170075 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.731722] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/28/2021] [Accepted: 04/20/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Comparative studies of cultural-cognitive systems in China have stressed differences between northern and southern regions, with less attention paid to inter-regional commonality. This study proposes an implicit biculturalism model to rectify the diversity bias. The model posits that Chinese in both regions have internalized the same two cultural-cognitive systems but have organized them differently. For northerners, the individualist/analytical system (indicated by field-independence) is more dominant and chronically accessible than the collectivist/holistic system (indicated by field-dependence); for southerners the hierarchical order is reversed. The more dominant system would normally manifest in everyday life as the default situation, but the less dominant system could be activated through cultural priming. Both field-independent northerners (N = 46) and field-dependent southerners (N = 46) were assigned randomly into individualistic and collectivistic priming conditions and then tested with the Embedded Figure Test (EFT). The results indicated field-independent northern Chinese changed their EFT performance to be field-dependent under collectivism priming, and field-dependent southern Chinese changed their EFT performance in the field-independent direction, albeit to a less extent, under individualism priming. Generally, these results supported the implicit biculturalism model, which provides a more nuanced understanding of the question of "Who are the Chinese in Chinese psychology?"
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Affiliation(s)
- Wenli Liu
- College of Education, Hunan Agricultural University, Changsha, China
| | - Zhaobin Dai
- College of Education, Hunan Agricultural University, Changsha, China
| | - Shiwei Yang
- Department of Psychology, Renmin University of China, Beijing, China
| | - Sik Hong Ng
- Department of Psychology, Renmin University of China, Beijing, China
| | - Xiaocui Zhang
- Medical Psychological Center, The Second Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, China
- Medical Psychological Institute of Central South University, Changsha, China
- National Clinical Research Center for Mental Disorders, Changsha, China
| | - Shenli Peng
- College of Education, Hunan Agricultural University, Changsha, China
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Lo RF, Ng AH, Cohen AS, Sasaki JY. Does self-construal shape automatic social attention? PLoS One 2021; 16:e0246577. [PMID: 33566804 PMCID: PMC7875344 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0246577] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/06/2020] [Accepted: 01/22/2021] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
We examined whether activating independent or interdependent self-construal modulates attention shifting in response to group gaze cues. European Canadians (Study 1) and East Asian Canadians (Study 2) primed with independence vs. interdependence completed a multi-gaze cueing task with a central face gazing left or right, flanked by multiple background faces that either matched or mismatched the direction of the foreground gaze. Results showed that European Canadians (Study 1) mostly ignored background gaze cues and were uninfluenced by the self-construal primes. However, East Asian Canadians (Study 2), who have cultural backgrounds relevant to both independence and interdependence, showed different attention patterns by prime: those primed with interdependence were more distracted by mismatched (vs. matched) background gaze cues, whereas there was no change for those primed with independence. These findings suggest activating an interdependent self-construal modulates social attention mechanisms to attend broadly, but only for those who may find these representations meaningful.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ronda F. Lo
- Department of Psychology, York University, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
- * E-mail:
| | - Andy H. Ng
- Cardiff Business School, Cardiff University, Cardiff, Wales, United Kingdom
| | - Adam S. Cohen
- Department of Psychology, University of Hawaiʻi at Mānoa, Honolulu, Hawaii, United States of America
| | - Joni Y. Sasaki
- Department of Psychology, University of Hawaiʻi at Mānoa, Honolulu, Hawaii, United States of America
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9
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Rachev NR. Myside bias, school performance, and the polarity of music preferences. JOURNAL OF COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY 2021. [DOI: 10.1080/20445911.2020.1841778] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Nikolay R. Rachev
- Department of General, Experimental, Developmental, and Health Psychology, Sofia University St. Kliment Ohridski, Sofia, Bulgaria
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10
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Is Global Management Knowledge on the Way to Impoverishment? PHILOSOPHY OF MANAGEMENT 2020. [DOI: 10.1007/s40926-020-00153-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
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11
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Lee IC, Permyakova T, Sheveleva M. Reducing Negative Attitudes Toward Immigrants in Russia and Taiwan: Possible Beneficial Effects of Naïve Dialecticism and an Incremental Worldview. Front Psychol 2020; 11:572386. [PMID: 33041944 PMCID: PMC7516398 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2020.572386] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2020] [Accepted: 08/17/2020] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
Greater mobility in human societies has resulted in more interactions and contact with immigrants. In the current research, we investigated how viewing the world as flexible, changing, and paradoxical (i.e., naïve dialecticism and an incremental theory) may predict one’s authoritarian beliefs and in turn predict one’s attitudes toward immigrants. To test the generalizability of our findings, we recruit comparable samples (i.e., college students) from two societies that are largely different (Russia and Taiwan). Great cultural similarities were observed. Naïve dialecticism and an incremental theory appeared as two distinctive constructs. People who were higher on naïve dialecticism and an incremental over entity theory had lower support for authoritarian beliefs (i.e., right-wing authoritarianism and social dominance orientation) and, in turn, had more favorable attitudes toward immigrants. Some cultural differences were also observed. Taiwanese participants’ negative attitudes toward immigrants were entirely ideology-based, whereas Russian participants’ negative attitudes toward immigrants were partly based on presumably personal experiences. Pan-cultural and culturally specific mechanisms in predicting attitudes toward immigrants were further discussed and explored.
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Affiliation(s)
- I-Ching Lee
- Department of Psychology, National Taiwan University, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Tatyana Permyakova
- Department of Foreign Languages, National Research University Higher School of Economics, Perm, Russia
| | - Marina Sheveleva
- Department of Foreign Languages, National Research University Higher School of Economics, Perm, Russia
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Na J, Grossmann I, Varnum MEW, Karasawa M, Cho Y, Kitayama S, Nisbett RE. Culture and personality revisited: Behavioral profiles and within-person stability in interdependent (vs. independent) social orientation and holistic (vs. analytic) cognitive style. J Pers 2019; 88:908-924. [PMID: 31869444 DOI: 10.1111/jopy.12536] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/25/2019] [Revised: 11/04/2019] [Accepted: 12/14/2019] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE We test the proposition that both social orientation and cognitive style are constructs consisting of loosely related attributes. Thus, measures of each construct should weakly correlate among themselves, forming intraindividually stable profiles across measures over time. METHOD Study 1 tested diverse samples of Americans (N = 233) and Japanese (N = 433) with a wide range of measures of social orientation and cognitive style to explore correlations among these measures in a cross-cultural context, using demographically heterogeneous samples. Study 2 recruited a new sample of 485 Americans and Canadians and examined their profiles on measures of social orientation and cognitive style twice, one month apart, to assess the stability of individual profiles using these variables. RESULTS Despite finding typical cross-cultural differences, Study 1 demonstrated negligible correlations both among measures of social orientation and among measures of cognitive style. Study 2 demonstrated stable intraindividual behavioral profiles across measures capturing idiosyncratic patters of social orientation and cognitive style, despite negligible correlations among the same measures. CONCLUSION The results provide support for the behavioral profile approach to conceptualizing social orientation and cognitive style, highlighting the need to assess intraindividual stability of psychological constructs in cross-cultural research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jinkyung Na
- Department of Psychology, Sogang University, Seoul, Korea
| | - Igor Grossmann
- Department of Psychology, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, ON, Canada
| | | | - Mayumi Karasawa
- Department of Communication, Tokyo Women's Christian University, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Youngwon Cho
- Department of Psychology, Sogang University, Seoul, Korea
| | - Shinobu Kitayama
- Department of Psychology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan
| | - Richard E Nisbett
- Department of Psychology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan
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Bacha-Trams M, Alexandrov YI, Broman E, Glerean E, Kauppila M, Kauttonen J, Ryyppö E, Sams M, Jääskeläinen IP. A drama movie activates brains of holistic and analytical thinkers differentially. Soc Cogn Affect Neurosci 2019; 13:1293-1304. [PMID: 30418656 PMCID: PMC6277741 DOI: 10.1093/scan/nsy099] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2017] [Accepted: 11/07/2018] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
Abstract
People socialized in different cultures differ in their thinking styles. Eastern-culture people view objects more holistically by taking context into account, whereas Western-culture people view objects more analytically by focusing on them at the expense of context. Here we studied whether participants, who have different thinking styles but live within the same culture, exhibit differential brain activity when viewing a drama movie. A total of 26 Finnish participants, who were divided into holistic and analytical thinkers based on self-report questionnaire scores, watched a shortened drama movie during functional magnetic resonance imaging. We compared intersubject correlation (ISC) of brain hemodynamic activity of holistic vs analytical participants across the movie viewings. Holistic thinkers showed significant ISC in more extensive cortical areas than analytical thinkers, suggesting that they perceived the movie in a more similar fashion. Significantly higher ISC was observed in holistic thinkers in occipital, prefrontal and temporal cortices. In analytical thinkers, significant ISC was observed in right-hemisphere fusiform gyrus, temporoparietal junction and frontal cortex. Since these results were obtained in participants with similar cultural background, they are less prone to confounds by other possible cultural differences. Overall, our results show how brain activity in holistic vs analytical participants differs when viewing the same drama movie.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mareike Bacha-Trams
- Brain and Mind Laboratory, Department of Neuroscience and Biomedical Engineering, Aalto University, Espoo, Finland
- Correspondence should be addressed to Mareike Bacha-Trams, Department of Neuroscience and Biomedical Engineering, School of Science, Aalto University, PO Box 12200, FI-00076 AALTO, 02150 Espoo, Finland. E-mail:
| | - Yuri I Alexandrov
- Laboratory of Neural Bases of Mind, Institute of Psychology, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, Russia
- Department of Psychology, National Research University Higher School of Economics, Moscow, Russia
| | - Emilia Broman
- Brain and Mind Laboratory, Department of Neuroscience and Biomedical Engineering, Aalto University, Espoo, Finland
| | - Enrico Glerean
- Brain and Mind Laboratory, Department of Neuroscience and Biomedical Engineering, Aalto University, Espoo, Finland
- Department of Computer Science, Aalto University, Espoo, Finland
- Helsinki Institute of Information Technology, Aalto University, Espoo, Finland
| | - Minna Kauppila
- Brain and Mind Laboratory, Department of Neuroscience and Biomedical Engineering, Aalto University, Espoo, Finland
| | - Janne Kauttonen
- Brain and Mind Laboratory, Department of Neuroscience and Biomedical Engineering, Aalto University, Espoo, Finland
| | - Elisa Ryyppö
- Brain and Mind Laboratory, Department of Neuroscience and Biomedical Engineering, Aalto University, Espoo, Finland
| | - Mikko Sams
- Brain and Mind Laboratory, Department of Neuroscience and Biomedical Engineering, Aalto University, Espoo, Finland
- Department of Computer Science, Aalto University, Espoo, Finland
| | - Iiro P Jääskeläinen
- Brain and Mind Laboratory, Department of Neuroscience and Biomedical Engineering, Aalto University, Espoo, Finland
- Advanced Magnetic Imaging Centre, Aalto NeuroImaging, Aalto University, Espoo, Finland
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Karlsson BSA, Allwood CM. Cultural Differences in Answerability Judgments. Front Psychol 2018; 9:1641. [PMID: 30279669 PMCID: PMC6153327 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2018.01641] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/02/2018] [Accepted: 08/16/2018] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Judgments about whether anyone can provide a relevant and correct answer to a question are called answerability judgments. Such judgements can be important in societal planning and decision making and may vary in different cultural contexts. Six hundred participants in each of China, India, and Sweden made answerability judgments of six difficult knowledge questions. For each question, they choose between three options indicating that they thought the question was answerable and a fourth option: "Nobody can answer that question." After each question, they rated their confidence that their judgment was correct. Choosing "Nobody can answer that question" was significantly more common for the Swedes and was uncommon in the Asian samples. The Asian samples showed higher confidence in their judgments. We suggest that these differences may be explained by results from cross-cultural research, but this study did not investigate specific mechanisms. Hence, more research is needed.
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de Oliveira S, Nisbett RE. Culture Changes How We Think About Thinking: From "Human Inference" to "Geography of Thought". PERSPECTIVES ON PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE 2018; 12:782-790. [PMID: 28972847 DOI: 10.1177/1745691617702718] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Cultural comparison has challenged people's assumptions of universality in psychology. It has also revealed that many questions and approaches in psychology are not culture-free, but reflect a distinctively Western analytic framework. In this framework, the world is assumed to operate by discernible and stable rules, contradiction is a problem to be resolved, and entities are viewed as relatively independent agents. Context and relationships between people and objects are relatively downplayed-or, when they are examined, are assumed to operate under parsimonious rules. Dialectical or holistic thinking, a framework more prevalent in East Asian societies, involves greater attention to context and relationships, assumptions of change rather than stasis, and acceptance of contradiction. Analytic thinking is useful for science and daily life. But sometimes dialectical thinking results in more accurate conclusions or pragmatically useful decisions than analytic thinking. Therefore, we propose that both dialectical and analytic thinking should be consciously adopted as tools in the "cognitive toolbox" of researchers and laypeople alike. In the present article, we review the cross-cultural work demonstrating the psychological differences that analytic versus dialectical thinking produce. We then consider the strengths of each type of thinking and how they may serve complementary functions for problem solving.
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de Oliveira S, Nisbett RE. Beyond East and West: Cognitive Style in Latin America. JOURNAL OF CROSS-CULTURAL PSYCHOLOGY 2017. [DOI: 10.1177/0022022117730816] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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17
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Antalíková R, Hansen TGB, de la Mata ML, Martínez R. Investigating interdependent self in post-communist countries: A comparison of two Slovak and Danish generations. The Journal of Social Psychology 2017; 158:337-349. [PMID: 28783471 DOI: 10.1080/00224545.2017.1353475] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
Some evidence suggests prevalence of collectivist values and interdependent self in post-communist Europe. However, research on social representations identifies a possible divide between Eastern Europeans' appreciation of their immediate social environment on the one hand and their suspicion toward impersonal collectives on the other. The current study aimed to capture this divide by investigating two types of interdependent self, namely relational and collective. Specifically, we compared self-descriptions in two Slovak samples-"old" with a communist experience (n = 80) and "young" without it (n = 80)-and used a country that has never been communist (Denmark; n = 80 x 2) to control for age effects. Results showed predominance of independent self in all groups, higher relational self in both old groups, and highest collective self among the young Slovaks. This indicates no association between communist experience and interdependent self, but a possible post-communist effect is suggested. Theoretically, the study substantiated the importance of disentangling interdependence.
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Voytyuk M, Hruschka D. Cognitive Differences Accounting for Cross-cultural Variation in Perceptions of Healthy Eating. JOURNAL OF COGNITION AND CULTURE 2017. [DOI: 10.1163/15685373-12342194] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
What counts as healthy eating varies both within and across cultures. While people often focus on specific foods and nutrients, the timing and style of eating (eating context) can also be an important consideration, and one that appears to vary across cultures. One possible explanation for this variation is differences in basic cognition, with holistic thinking in collectivist cultures favouring contextual factors. We assess this hypothesis by examining perceptions between two cultural groups that vary in collectivism. In study 1, we investigate whether residents of Ukraine place more importance on considerations of eating context than residents of the usa. In study 2, we test whether this between-country difference is due to the mediating effect of individual differences in collectivism. Ukrainian participants consistently placed more importance on context (Cohen’s d = 0.71–0.84; p < 0.01) and were more collectivist (Cohen’s d = 0.95, p < 0.001). A mediation analysis shows that collectivism significantly mediates the effect of nationality on context endorsement, and renders the effect of nationality non-significant (p > 0.05). These results suggest that the holistic pattern of attention might extend to the domain of nutrition and may account for some cross-cultural differences in perceptions of healthy eating. We briefly discuss the benefits of perception focused on the context of eating, such as decreased burden of self-regulation in a food-rich environment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mariya Voytyuk
- *Corresponding author, e-mail:
- Arizona State University, School of Human Evolution and Social Changep.o. Box 872402, Tempe, az 85287USA
| | - Daniel Hruschka
- Arizona State University, School of Human Evolution and Social Changep.o. Box 872402, Tempe, az 85287USA
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Jakob L, Bojanić L, Tsvetanova DD, Buabang EK, de Bles NJ, Sarafoglou A, Dijkzeul A, Del Pino R. Study Protocol on Cognitive Performance in Bulgaria, Croatia, and the Netherlands: The Normacog Brief Battery. Front Psychol 2016; 7:1658. [PMID: 27833575 PMCID: PMC5081388 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2016.01658] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/08/2016] [Accepted: 10/11/2016] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The Normacog Brief Battery (NBB) provides a comprehensive overview of an individual's cognitive functioning within a short amount of time. It was originally developed for the Spanish population in Spain. However, there is a considerable need for brief batteries in clinical neuropsychological assessment, especially in eastern European countries. Cultural background and other individual characteristics-such as age, level of education, and sex-are shown to influence both cognition and patients' performance on neuropsychological tests. Therefore, it is important to develop understanding of how and why culture impacts on cognitive testing and determine which sociodemographic variables affect cognitive performance. The current study aims to translate, adapt, and standardize the NBB in Bulgaria, Croatia, and the Netherlands, and to analyze the effect of sex, age, and education level on cognitive performance between these three countries. This brief battery assesses eleven cognitive domains, including those most currently relevant in cognition such as premorbid intelligence, attention, executive function, processing speed, and memory. The translation and adaptation of the battery for different cultures will be done using the back-translation process. After exclusion criteria, the current study will include a total sample of 300 participants (≥18 years old). The samples of 100 participants per country will be balanced through the consideration of their age and level of education. Effects of the sociodemographic variables (age, level of education, and sex) on cognitive performance are expected. Furthermore, this relationship is expected to differ across countries. A multivariate hierarchical linear regression will be used and exploratory analysis will be carried out to investigate further effects. The results will be particularly valuable for future research and assessment in cognitive performance. The growing demand for accurate and fast neuropsychological assessment shows the importance of creating a universal brief assessment tool for wider cross-cultural application.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lea Jakob
- Department of Psychology, Centre for Croatian Studies, University of Zagreb Zagreb, Croatia
| | - Lana Bojanić
- Department of Psychology, Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences, University of Zagreb Zagreb, Croatia
| | | | - Eike K Buabang
- Institute of Psychology, Leiden University Leiden, Netherlands
| | | | | | - Annet Dijkzeul
- Department of Psychology, Utrecht University Utrecht, Netherlands
| | - Rocio Del Pino
- Department of Methods and Experimental Psychology, University of Deusto Bilbao, Spain
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Rhode AK, Voyer BG, Gleibs IH. Does Language Matter? Exploring Chinese-Korean Differences in Holistic Perception. Front Psychol 2016; 7:1508. [PMID: 27799915 PMCID: PMC5066059 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2016.01508] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2016] [Accepted: 09/20/2016] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
Cross-cultural research suggests that East Asians display a holistic attentional bias by paying attention to the entire field and to relationships between objects, whereas Westerners pay attention primarily to salient objects, displaying an analytic attentional bias. The assumption of a universal pan-Asian holistic attentional bias has recently been challenged in experimental research involving Japanese and Chinese participants, which suggests that linguistic factors may contribute to the formation of East Asians' holistic attentional patterns. The present experimental research explores differences in attention and information processing styles between Korean and Chinese speakers, who have been assumed to display the same attentional bias due to cultural commonalities. We hypothesize that the specific structure of the Korean language predisposes speakers to pay more attention to ground information than to figure information, thus leading to a stronger holistic attentional bias compared to Chinese speakers. Findings of the present research comparing different groups of English, Chinese, and Korean speakers provide further evidence for differences in East Asians' holistic attentional bias, which may be due to the influence of language. Furthermore, we also extend prior theorizing by discussing the potential impact of other cultural factors. In line with critical voices calling for more research investigating differences between cultures that are assumed to be culturally similar, we highlight important avenues for future studies exploring the language-culture relationship.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ann K Rhode
- Department of Marketing, ESCP EuropeParis, France; Ecole de Management de la Sorbonne (EMS), Université Paris 1 Panthéon-SorbonneParis, France
| | - Benjamin G Voyer
- Department of Marketing, ESCP EuropeLondon, UK; Department of Psychological and Behavioural Science, London School of Economics and Political ScienceLondon, UK
| | - Ilka H Gleibs
- Department of Psychological and Behavioural Science, London School of Economics and Political Science London, UK
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Kitson A, Sproll D, Riecke BE. Influence of Ethnicity, Gender and Answering Mode on a Virtual Point-to-Origin Task. Front Behav Neurosci 2016; 10:22. [PMID: 26941627 PMCID: PMC4763036 DOI: 10.3389/fnbeh.2016.00022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/15/2015] [Accepted: 02/03/2016] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
In a virtual point-to-origin task, participants seem to show different response patterns and underlying strategies for orientation, such as “turner” and “non-turner” response patterns. Turners respond as if succeeding to update simulated heading changes, and non-turners respond as if failing to update their heading, resulting in left-right hemisphere errors. We present two other response patterns, “non-movers” and “spinners,” that also appear to result in failures to update heading. We have three specific goals in mind: (1) extend previous findings of higher turner rates with spatial language response mode using a point-to-origin task instead of a triangle completion task; (2) replicate the gender effect of males more likely responding as turners; (3) examine ethnicity influence. Designed as a classroom study, we presented participants (N = 498) with four passages through a virtual star field. Participants selected the direction pointing to the origin from four multiple-choice items. Response mode was either pictograms or written language, chosen to compare with similar studies and see if these response modes have an effect on virtual orientation behavior. Results show a majority of participants (48.35%) classified as non-turners, 32.93% turners, 15.57% as non-movers, and 3.14% as spinners. A multinomial regression model reached 49% classification performance. Written spatial language, compared to pictograms, made turner response patterns more likely; this effect was more pronounced for Chinese participants and among females, but not male Caucasians. Moreover, higher turner numbers for written spatial language extends Avraamides findings of higher turner numbers when participants turned their bodies toward the origin but not when they responded verbally. Using pictorial response mode (i.e., top-down picture of a head) may have increased cognitive load because it could be considered more embodied. It remains to be seen how we can reduce the reference frame conflict that might have caused increased cognitive load. Second, our results are inconsistent with previous research in that males overall did not show more turner behavior than females. Future research may look at possible underlying factors, such as cultural norms. Third, individualistic cultures (Caucasians; Greif, 1994) lean toward turner response patterns, whereas collectivist cultures (Asian) lean toward non-turner response patterns.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexandra Kitson
- iSpace Lab, School of Interactive Arts and Technology, Simon Fraser University Surrey, BC, Canada
| | - Daniel Sproll
- Department of Neurobiopsychology, Institute of Cognitive Science, University of Osnabrück Osnabrück, Germany
| | - Bernhard E Riecke
- iSpace Lab, School of Interactive Arts and Technology, Simon Fraser University Surrey, BC, Canada
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Ji LJ, Yap S. Culture and cognition. Curr Opin Psychol 2015; 8:105-111. [PMID: 29506784 DOI: 10.1016/j.copsyc.2015.10.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/26/2015] [Revised: 09/15/2015] [Accepted: 10/03/2015] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
In this paper, we review the latest developments in cultural influences on attention, perception, categorization, memory and cognitive heuristics. We then explore the origin of these cultural differences, and highlight the implications of such culture-specific thinking styles for people's judgment and decision-making processes. We conclude this review by discussing some of the future research directions to further advance our understanding in culture and cognition.
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Roberts ME, Wagner L, Zorjan S, Nèmeth E, van Toor D, Czaplinski M. Testing the Situationism Scale in Europe: Scale validation, self-regulation and regional differences. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF PSYCHOLOGY 2015; 52:264-272. [PMID: 28703327 DOI: 10.1002/ijop.12211] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/28/2014] [Revised: 07/23/2015] [Accepted: 07/31/2015] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
The term situationism refers to an individual's belief about the importance of a behaviour's context. This study tested whether the degree of situationism expressed by individuals in various regions of Europe was consistent with self-regulation and cross-cultural theories. The English version of a Situationism Scale (measuring beliefs about the relation between the environment and one's own behaviour) was translated into five additional languages: Dutch, German, Hungarian, Italian and Slovenian. Young adults (N = 1106, MAge = 22.9 years, 79% female) across Europe responded to one of the six language versions of the scale as part of a larger survey. Results indicated that: new language versions were psychometrically valid; there was a positive relation between situationism and the use of situation-control strategies; and situationism was higher for individuals from regions that are Eastern European and relatively more interdependent, compared with individuals from regions that are Western European and relatively less interdependent. As the first evaluation of the Situationism Scale outside America, this study supports the Scale's validity and suggests not only may some effects of situationism be universal, but between- and within-culture differences in situationism exist. Overall, when making judgments and decisions about the self, cultural background and individual differences in situationism may come into play.
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Affiliation(s)
- Megan E Roberts
- College of Public Health, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, USA
| | - Lisa Wagner
- Department of Psychology, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Saša Zorjan
- Department of Psychology, University of Maribor, Maribor, Slovenia
| | - Enikö Nèmeth
- Department of Psychology, Semmelweis University, Budapest, Hungary
| | - Désie van Toor
- Department of Neurosciences, VU University, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Michał Czaplinski
- Donders Graduate School for Cognitive Neuroscience, Radboud University Nijmegen, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
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Sittenthaler S, Traut-Mattausch E, Jonas E. Observing the restriction of another person: vicarious reactance and the role of self-construal and culture. Front Psychol 2015; 6:1052. [PMID: 26300795 PMCID: PMC4523787 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2015.01052] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/03/2015] [Accepted: 07/10/2015] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Psychological reactance occurs in response to threats posed to perceived behavioral freedoms. Research has shown that people can also experience vicarious reactance. They feel restricted in their own freedom even though they are not personally involved in the restriction but only witness the situation. The phenomenon of vicarious reactance is especially interesting when considered in a cross-cultural context because the cultural specific self-construal plays a crucial role in understanding people's response to self- and vicariously experienced restrictions. Previous studies and our pilot study (N = 197) could show that people with a collectivistic cultural background show higher vicarious reactance compared to people with an individualistic cultural background. But does it matter whether people experience the vicarious restriction for an in-group or an out-group member? Differentiating vicarious-in-group and vicarious-out-group restrictions, Study 1 (N = 159) suggests that people with a more interdependent self-construal show stronger vicarious reactance only with regard to in-group restrictions but not with regard to out-group restrictions. In contrast, participants with a more independent self-construal experience stronger reactance when being self-restricted compared to vicariously-restricted. Study 2 (N = 180) replicates this pattern conceptually with regard to individualistic and collectivistic cultural background groups. Additionally, participants' behavioral intentions show the same pattern of results. Moreover a mediation analysis demonstrates that cultural differences in behavioral intentions could be explained through people's self-construal differences. Thus, the present studies provide new insights and show consistent evidence for vicarious reactance depending on participants' culturally determined self-construal.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sandra Sittenthaler
- Division of Economic and Organizational Psychology, Department of Psychology, University of Salzburg , Salzburg, Austria
| | - Eva Traut-Mattausch
- Division of Economic and Organizational Psychology, Department of Psychology, University of Salzburg , Salzburg, Austria
| | - Eva Jonas
- Division of Social Psychology, Department of Psychology, University of Salzburg , Salzburg, Austria
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Kozhevnikov M, Evans C, Kosslyn SM. Cognitive Style as Environmentally Sensitive Individual Differences in Cognition. Psychol Sci Public Interest 2014; 15:3-33. [DOI: 10.1177/1529100614525555] [Citation(s) in RCA: 86] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
The key aims of this article are to relate the construct of cognitive style to current theories in cognitive psychology and neuroscience and to outline a framework that integrates the findings on individual differences in cognition across different disciplines. First, we characterize cognitive style as patterns of adaptation to the external world that develop on the basis of innate predispositions, the interactions among which are shaped by changing environmental demands. Second, we show that research on cognitive style in psychology and cross-cultural neuroscience, on learning styles in education, and on decision-making styles in business and management all address the same phenomena. Third, we review cognitive-psychology and neuroscience research that supports the validity of the concept of cognitive style. Fourth, we show that various styles from disparate disciplines can be organized into a single taxonomy. This taxonomy allows us to integrate all the well-documented cognitive, learning, and decision-making styles; all of these style types correspond to adaptive systems that draw on different levels of information processing. Finally, we discuss how the proposed approach might promote greater coherence in research and application in education, in business and management, and in other disciplines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria Kozhevnikov
- Athinoula A. Martinos Center for Biomedical Imaging, Harvard Medical School
- Department of Psychology, National University of Singapore
| | - Carol Evans
- Graduate School of Education, University of Exeter
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Grossmann I, Na J. Research in culture and psychology: past lessons and future challenges. WILEY INTERDISCIPLINARY REVIEWS. COGNITIVE SCIENCE 2013; 5:1-14. [PMID: 26304293 DOI: 10.1002/wcs.1267] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/22/2013] [Revised: 09/28/2013] [Accepted: 10/23/2013] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
Since the dawn of psychology as a science, conceptual and methodological questions have accompanied research at the intersection of culture and psychology. We review some of these questions using two dominant concepts-independent versus interdependent social orientation and analytic versus holistic cognitive style. Studying the relationship between culture and psychology can be difficult due to sampling restrictions and response biases. Since these challenges have been mastered, a wealth of research has accumulated on how culture influences cognition, emotion, and the self. Building on this work, we outline a set of new challenges for culture and psychology. Such challenges include questions about conceptual clarity, within-cultural and subcultural variations (e.g., variations due to social class), differentiation and integration of processes at the group versus individual level of analysis, modeling of how cultural processes unfold over time, and integration of insights from etic and emic methodological approaches. We review emerging work addressing these challenges, proposing that future research on culture and psychology is more exciting than ever. WIREs Cogn Sci 2014, 5:1-14. doi: 10.1002/wcs.1267 CONFLICT OF INTEREST: The authors have declared no conflicts of interest for this article. For further resources related to this article, please visit the WIREs website.
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Affiliation(s)
- Igor Grossmann
- Department of Psychology, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, Ontario, Canada
| | - Jinkyung Na
- School of Behavioral and Brain Sciences, University of Texas at Dallas, Dallas, TX, USA
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Kokkoris MD, Kühnen U. Choice and dissonance in a European cultural context: The case of Western and Eastern Europeans. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF PSYCHOLOGY 2013; 48:1260-6. [DOI: 10.1080/00207594.2013.766746] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
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Miyamoto Y. Culture and Analytic Versus Holistic Cognition. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY 2013. [DOI: 10.1016/b978-0-12-407236-7.00003-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
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REFERENCES. Monogr Soc Res Child Dev 2012. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1540-5834.2012.00693.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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Cultural differences are not always reducible to individual differences. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2010; 107:6192-7. [PMID: 20308553 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1001911107] [Citation(s) in RCA: 183] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
We show that differences in social orientation and in cognition that exist between cultures and social classes do not necessarily have counterparts in individual differences within those groups. Evidence comes from a large-scale study conducted with 10 measures of independent vs. interdependent social orientation and 10 measures of analytic vs. holistic cognitive style. The social measures successfully distinguish between interdependence (viewing oneself as embedded in relations with others) and independence (viewing oneself as disconnected from others) at the group level. However, the correlations among the measures were negligible. Similar results were obtained for the cognitive measures, for which there are no coherent individual differences despite the validity of the construct at the group level. We conclude that behavioral constructs that distinguish among groups need not be valid as measures of individual differences.
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Varnum MEW, Grossmann I, Kitayama S, Nisbett RE. The Origin of Cultural Differences in Cognition: Evidence for the Social Orientation Hypothesis. CURRENT DIRECTIONS IN PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE 2010; 19:9-13. [PMID: 20234850 DOI: 10.1177/0963721409359301] [Citation(s) in RCA: 229] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
A large body of research documents cognitive differences between Westerners and East Asians. Westerners tend to be more analytic and East Asians tend to be more holistic. These findings have often been explained as being due to corresponding differences in social orientation. Westerners are more independent and Easterners are more interdependent. However, comparisons of the cognitive tendencies of Westerners and East Asians do not allow us to rule out alternative explanations for the cognitive differences, such as linguistic and genetic differences, as well as cultural differences other than social orientation. In this review we summarize recent developments which provide stronger support for the social orientation hypothesis.
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