The influence of gender role on the prediction of antisocial behaviour and somatization

Female sex and femininity independently associate with common somatic symptom trajectories

BACKGROUND

Multiple predictors have been associated with persistent somatic symptoms. However, previous studies problematically defined the persistence of symptoms, conflated participants' sex and gender, and focused on patient populations. Therefore, we studied associations between predictors, especially sex and gender, and longitudinal patterns of somatic symptoms in the general adult population. We also assessed whether predictors for persisting symptoms differ between sexes.

METHOD

To identify developmental trajectories of somatic symptoms, assessed by the SCL-90 SOM, we used latent class trajectory modeling in the Dutch Lifelines Cohort Study [N = 150 494; 58.6% female; median time to follow-up: 46.0 (min-max: 22.0-123.0) months]. To identify predictors of trajectories, we applied multiple logistic regression analyses. Predictors were measured by surveys at baseline and a composite gender index was previously developed.

RESULTS

A five-class linear LCGA model fitted the data best: 93.7% of the population had a stable symptom trajectory, whereas 1.5% and 4.8% of the population had a consistently increasing or decreasing symptom trajectory, respectively. Female sex predicted severe, stable symptom severity (OR 1.74, 95% CI 1.36-2.22), but not increasing symptom severity (OR 1.15, 95% CI 0.99-1.40). Femininity was protective hereof (OR 0.60, 95% CI 0.44-0.82 and OR 0.66, 95% CI 0.51-0.85, respectively). Merely a few predictors of symptom severity, for instance hours of paid employment and physical functioning, differed in strength between sexes. Yet, effect sizes were small.

CONCLUSION

Female sex and femininity predict symptom trajectories. No large sex differences in the strength of additional predictors were found, thus it may not be clinically useful to distinguish between predictors specific to male or female patients of persistent somatic symptoms.

The relationship between maladaptive personality functioning and problematic technology use in adolescence: A cluster analysis approach

In the last two decades, scientific research has explored the problematic use of internet, videogames and mobile phones. However, there is still little consistent knowledge regarding the co-occurrence of problematic technology use and the role of maladaptive personality characteristics in adolescence. The present study aimed to investigate adolescents' styles of technology use with a cluster analysis approach focusing on personality functioning. The sample comprised 408 Italian adolescents (46.3% males) aged 11 to 18 years (M _age  = 13.80; SD = 2.08). Data were collected using the Internet Addiction Test, the Videogame Dependency Scale, the Test of Mobile-Phone Dependence Brief Form and the Personality Inventory for DSM5 Brief Form. Results provided a four-cluster solution based on the co-occurrence of problematic technology use. The four clusters were labeled as follows: cluster 1: "Above average internet and mobile-phone use"; cluster 2: "Below average technology use"; cluster 3: "Above average videogame use"; and cluster 4: "Problematic technology use." Analyses on demographic variables (e.g., gender and age) demonstrated significant differences between the four groups. Adolescents with high levels of problematic technology use reported greater overall personality dysfunction than the other three groups. This finding supported our hypothesis on maladaptive personality functioning in adolescents at risk for addiction. Finally, the Antagonism domain played a specific role in differentiating the severity of adolescents' involvement in technology use. Further studies are needed to confirm our findings and to plan preventive interventions as well as therapeutic treatments.

Gender and sex independently associate with common somatic symptoms and lifetime prevalence of chronic disease

Sex and gender influence health differently. Associations between sex and health have been extensively studied, but gender (i.e. psychosocial sex) has been largely neglected, partly due to the absence of gender measures in cohort studies. Therefore, our objective was to test the unique associations of gender and sex with common somatic symptoms and chronic diseases, using a gender index created from existing cohort data. We applied LASSO logistic regression to identify, out of 153 unique variables, psychosocial variables that were predictive of sex (i.e. gender-related) in the Dutch LifeLines Cohort Study. These psychosocial variables covered gender roles and institutionalized gender. Using the estimated coefficients, gender indexes were calculated for each adult participant in the study (n = 152,728; 58.5% female; mean age 44.6 (13.1) years). We applied multiple ordinal and logistic regression to test the unique associations of the gender index and sex, and their interactions, with common somatic symptoms assessed by the SCL-90 SOM and self-reported lifetime prevalence of chronic diseases, respectively. We found that in 10.1% of the participants the gender index was not in line with participants' sex: 12.5% of men and 8.4% of women showed a discrepancy between gender index and sex. Feminine gender characteristics are associated with increased common somatic symptoms and chronic diseases, especially in men. Female sex is associated with a higher common somatic symptom burden, but not with a higher prevalence of chronic diseases. The study shows that gender and sex uniquely impact health, and should be considered in epidemiological studies. Our methodology shows that consideration of gender measures in studies is necessary and feasible, based on data generally present in cohort studies.

Psychopathic Traits' Differential Relations With Aggression Forms: Considering the Roles of Gender and Gender Role Adherence

Research has yielded inconsistent findings between psychopathy and aggression, with findings varying as a function of type of psychopathic trait (i.e., affective, behavioral) and aggression form (i.e., physical, relational). Although some research has explored the role of gender in these relations, gender role adherence has received scant attention. Using an undergraduate sample (N = 320), we aimed to clarify mixed findings on how psychopathic traits relate to aggression forms across males and females; examine how psychopathic traits relate to gender role adherence; and ascertain the roles of gender and gender role adherence in the relations between psychopathic traits and aggression. Psychopathic traits manifested differential relations with gender role adherence such that Psychopathic Personality Inventory-Revised (PPI-R) Fearless Dominance was most strongly and positively associated with Bem Sex-Role Inventory (BSRI) Masculinity, whereas PPI-R Self-Centered Impulsivity and Coldheartedness were negatively associated with BSRI Femininity. BSRI Masculinity and Femininity were uniquely and differentially associated with aggression forms, and remained associated with aggression forms above and beyond both psychopathy and gender. In addition, BSRI Masculinity moderated the relations between PPI-R Self-Centered Impusivity and physical aggression such that those high in both Masculinity and Self-Centered Impulsivity were most prone to physical aggression. In contrast, although BSRI Femininity was negatively associated with aggression, it did not buffer against aggression in the presence of psychopathic traits. Overall, our results underscore the importance of considering gender role adherence in understanding differences in psychopathy and aggression.

Sociodemographic Characteristics and Psychological Adjustment Among Transsexuals in Spain

This study examined the sociodemographic characteristics and the psychological adjustment of transsexuals in Andalusia (Spain), and also analyzed the differences between female-to-male (FtM) and male-to-female (MtF) transsexuals. The sample included 197 transsexuals (101 MtF and 96 FtM) selected from those who visited the Transsexual and Gender Identity Unit at the Carlos Haya Hospital in Malaga between 2011 and 2012. Our analyses indicated that MtF transsexuals were more likely to have lower educational levels, live alone, have worked less frequently throughout their lifetime, and have engaged in prostitution. For FtM transsexuals, there were more frequent references to the mother's psychiatric history and more social avoidance and distress. Multivariate analysis showed that the number of personality dysfunctional traits and unemployment status were associated with depression in the entire sample. The following three conclusions can be made: there are significant differences between MtF and FtM transsexuals (mainly related to sociodemographic variables), depression was high in both groups, and a remarkable percentage of transsexuals have attempted suicide (22.8 %) or have had suicidal thoughts (52.3 %).