Evidence of a gene x environment interaction in the creation of victimization: results from a longitudinal sample of adolescents

Does Self-control Predict Crime, Delinquency, and Victimization in Immigrants? A Longitudinal Analysis

Gottfredson and Hirschi's theory of low self-control has generated a considerable amount of research and the results of these studies have shown that low levels of self-control are consistently associated with involvement in antisocial outcomes. Despite the empirical support for this theory, there still remain areas of it that need to be more fully evaluated. Once such area is whether self-control is associated with antisocial outcomes in samples of immigrants. The current study sought to address this gap in the literature. To do so, data drawn from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent to Adult Health (Add Health) were analyzed. The results of the statistical models revealed that low levels of self-control were associated with increases in self-reported delinquency, being arrested, being convicted of a crime, being sentenced to probation, being incarcerated, and being victimized. Taken together, the results of this study show that self-control is a robust predictor of antisocial outcomes among immigrants. We conclude by identifying limitations of the current study and directions for future research.

Integrating Individual Risk and Social Exposure to Violence: A Multilevel Victimization Perspective

We test two major hypotheses in this article: (a) macrolevels of school disorganization and individual levels of low self-control will be directly, and positively, linked to victimization and (bi) low self-control will have the largest impact on exposure to victimization (ETV) when it interacts with negative environments consistent with a social enhancement perspective, or (bii) low self-control will have a weaker impact on ETV when it interacts with negative environments consistent with saturation or social push models. The data for the current study were collected as part of the second International Self-Report Delinquency Study (ISRD-II). A total of 49,685 individuals from 30 countries are nested within 1,427 schools. We use multilevel generalized linear regression models with violent victimization (robbery and assault) regressed on demographic, family, school, and neighborhood variables. Multiplicative interaction terms are included in separate models to examine key moderation effects consistent with expectations drawn from the victimization literature. Analyses reveal that low self-control and perceptions of school disorganization are both associated with an increase in the odds of experiencing victimization. Interactions between low self-control and school disorganization are also found to be consistent with saturation/social push models. Our regulation approach offers a foundation for theorizing about ETV and provides a testable model for future research. However, elements of the regulation model are in need of further refinement and testing before the perspective can be moved toward a broader theory of victimization.

Sex-Based Differences in Criminal Victimization of Adolescents: A Meta-Analysis

While general criminological theories, including low self-control, social bonds, routine activities, and risky lifestyles are increasingly used to explain criminal victimization, there is some evidence these theories may omit important sex differences. To date, the empirical evidence remains mixed, which may be an artifact of methodological differences. This study used three-level meta-analytic methods to assess the use of various predictors derived from criminological theory on a variety of criminal victimization types, sample characteristics, and differences in research design. In a total sample of 166,650 females and 129,988 males in 115 studies using 95 unique datasets of adolescents (average age = 10-19), the meta-analysis revealed that elements of risky lifestyles are largely sex-neutral, while some sex-specific effects of bonds, routine activities, and prior victimization are observed. Implications for criminological theory, developmental and life course research on adolescent victimization, and avenues for prevention are discussed.

Examining the Association Between Personal Victimization in Adolescence and Intimate Partner Victimization in Adulthood

A large body of research has examined various issues related to repeat victimization, including potential risk factors and theoretical explanations. Despite the amount of studies dedicated to focusing on repeat victimization, there are some notable gaps in the literature. One particularly noteworthy omission in this research is whether there is a link between personal victimization in adolescence and intimate partner violence (IPV) victimization in adulthood. The current study sought to address this gap. To do so, data drawn from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent to Adult Health were analyzed. The results revealed a statistically significant and relatively consistent association between personal victimization in adolescence and IPV victimization in adulthood. This association was detected for both males and females, and it was detected even after controlling for low self-control (males and females) and being the perpetrator of IPV (males). We conclude by noting some of the implications of these findings, as well as limitations to the study that need to be addressed in the future.

The Interplay of MAOA and Peer Influences in Predicting Adult Criminal Behavior

Evidence concerning the ability of genetic risk factors to moderate the effects of environments has continued to accumulate over the last decade or so. For the behavioral sciences, this means that genetic risk factors might interact with environmental triggers to influence various human outcomes, including antisocial and aggressive behaviors. The current study seeks to further expand this line of inquiry by examining data drawn from the National Youth Survey Family Study. More specifically, we examined whether a polymorphism in the promoter region of the MAOA gene might condition the influence of exposure to deviant peer groups in the prediction of criminogenic behavior. Our findings offer some mixed evidence that genotype might condition the influence of delinquent peer affiliation on antisocial behavior during the course of human development.

The Association Between Breastfeeding Exposure and Duration, Neuropsychological Deficits, and Psychopathic Personality Traits in Offspring: The Moderating Role of 5HTTLPR

A wealth of research has revealed that a shorter duration of breastfeeding during infancy can increase the risk of various maladaptive traits, including neuropsychological deficits. Despite the number of studies that have been conducted on the topic, few studies have explored whether the effects of breastfeeding on neuropsychological functioning and personality features persist into adulthood. Furthermore, very little research to date has examined whether this relationship is moderated by specific indicators of genetic risk. The current study examines the direct and interactive effects of breastfeeding experiences and the serotonin transporter polymorphism (5HTTLPR) on neuropsychological deficits and psychopathic personality traits. Using data from the National Longitudinal study of Adolescent Health, we find that no exposure to breastfeeding and a shorter duration of breastfeeding significantly increase the risk of exhibiting neuropsychological deficits during adolescence and early adulthood as well as psychopathic personality traits during adulthood. The results also reveal a number of gene × environment interactions between 5HTTLPR, breastfeeding exposure and breastfeeding duration in the prediction of neuropsychological deficits, but not in the prediction of psychopathic personality traits.

Evidence of a Gene × Environment Interaction Between Birth Weight and Genetic Risk in the Prediction of Criminogenic Outcomes Among Adolescent Males

A number of studies have revealed that low birth weight children have a heightened risk of various maladaptive outcomes, including academic challenges and delinquent involvement. However, very little research to date has examined whether the relationship between low birth weight, poor academic performance, and delinquent peer affiliation is moderated by genetic risk. Using data from the National Longitudinal study of Adolescent Health, the present study examines whether male adolescents born at very low birth weights are significantly predisposed to poor academic performance and delinquent peer affiliation. Moreover, we test whether the effect of birth weight on these outcomes is conditioned by level of genetic risk. We find no evidence that very low birth weight males are more likely to affiliate with delinquent peers or perform poorly in school during adolescence. However, upon examining gene-environment interactions, we find that being born at a very low birth weight does significantly increase the odds of poor academic performance and delinquent peer affiliation among males who possess a higher level of genetic risk. Limitations are noted and the implications of the findings are discussed.

The Influence of Nutritional Factors on Verbal Deficits and Psychopathic Personality Traits: Evidence of the Moderating Role of the MAOA Genotype

The current study explores whether: (a) nutritional factors among adolescent males predict their risk of exhibiting verbal deficits and psychopathic traits during adulthood and (b) the link between nutritional factors and these outcomes is conditioned by the MAOA genotype. The study analyzes data from the U.S. National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health (Add Health), a nationally representative, genetically informative sample. We find evidence that meal deprivation increases the likelihood of both verbal deficits and psychopathic personality traits, whereas poor quality nutrition increases the risk of verbal deficits. We detect the presence of a number of gene-environment interactions between measures of food quality and MAOA genotype, but no evidence of GxE in the case of meal deprivation. Limitations are noted and avenues for future research are discussed.

Peer Victimization and DRD4 Genotype Influence Problem Behaviors in Young Children

Decades of research supports the presence of significant genetic influences on children's internalizing (emotional), externalizing (acting out), and social difficulties, including victimization. Additionally, being victimized has been shown to relate to further behavioral problems. The current study assessed the nature of the gene-environment relationships between the DRD4 gene, peer victimization, and externalizing and internalizing difficulties in 6- to 10-year-old children. 174 children (56 % girls; 88.6 % Caucasian, 3.4 % African American, 8 % mixed race or Mayan) and their parents were administered victimization and problem behavior questionnaires, and DRD4 was genotyped for the children. An interaction between genes (DRD4) and environment (victimization) was significant and supported the differential susceptibility model for verbal victimization and child-reported externalizing behaviors. Children with the DRD4 7-repeat allele were differentially responsive to the verbal victimization environment, such that those experiencing little to no victimization reported significantly lower levels of externalizing behaviors, but if they experienced high amounts of victimization, they reported the highest levels of externalizing behaviors. Thus, consideration of how genes and environment affect children's experiences of victimization prior to adolescence is essential for understanding the trajectory of both externalizing and internalizing behaviors during adolescent development.

The National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent to Adult Health (Add Health) sibling pairs genome-wide data

Here we provide a detailed description of the genome-wide information available on the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent to Adult Health (Add Health) sibling pair subsample (Harris et al. in Twin Res Hum Genet 16:391-398, 2013). A total of 2,020 samples were genotyped (including duplicates) arising from 1946 Add Health individuals from the sibling pairs subsample. After various steps for quality control (QC) and quality assurance (QA), we have high quality genome-wide data available on 1,888 individuals. In this report, we first highlight the QC and QA steps that were taken to prune the data of poorly performing samples and genetic markers. We further estimate the pairwise biological relationships using genome-wide data and compare those estimates to the assumed relationships in Add Health. Additionally, using genome-wide data from known regional reference populations from Europe, West Africa, North and South America, Japan and China, we estimate the relative genetic ancestry of the respondents. Finally, rather than conducting a traditional cross-sectional genome-wide association study (GWAS) of body mass index (BMI), we opted to utilize the extensive publicly available genome-wide information to conduct a weighted GWAS of longitudinal BMI while accounting for both family and ethnic variation.

Genes in the dopaminergic system and delinquent behaviors across the life course: the role of social controls and risks

This paper examines the interaction between social control and social risk mechanisms and genes within the dopaminergic system (DAT1 and DRD2) as related to serious and violent forms of delinquent behavior among adolescents and young adults. We use nine waves of data from the National Youth Survey Family Study to examine the relevance of protective or risky social factors at four social levels including school, neighborhood, friends, and family within the gene-environment interaction framework. We extend previous work in this area by providing a testable typology of gene-environment interactions derived from current theories in this area. We find consistent evidence that the associations between putatively risky genotypes and delinquent behavior are suppressed within protective social environments. We also provide some evidence that supports the differential susceptibility hypothesis for these outcomes. Our findings largely confirm the conclusions of previous work and continue to highlight the critical role of the social environment within candidate gene studies of complex behaviors.

Explaining Differential Reporting of Victimization between Parents and Children: A Consideration of Social Biases

Studies have shown that children and parents provide different reports of children's victimization, with children often reporting more victimization. However, the reason for this differential reporting is unclear. This study explored two types of social biases (emotion recognition and perceived impairment) in parents and children as possible reasons underlying differential reporting. Six- to 10-year-old children and one of their parents were tested in a lab. Testing included subjective measures of parent alexithymic traits, child perceived impairment from victimization, and child- and parent-reported frequency of children's peer victimization and internalizing and externalizing difficulties. Parents and children also completed an objective measure of emotion recognition. Both types of social bias significantly predicted reports of children's peer victimization frequency as well as internalizing and externalizing difficulties, as rated by parents and children. Moreover, child perceived impairment bias, rather than parent emotion bias, best predicted differential reporting of peer victimization. Finally, a significant interaction demonstrated that the influence of child perceived impairment bias on differential reporting was most salient in the presence of parent emotion bias. This underscores the importance of expanding interventions for victimized youth to include the restructuring of social biases.

Gene-environment interactions in the etiology of human violence

This chapter reviews the current research on gene-environment interactions (G × E) with regard to human violence. Findings are summarized from both behavioral and molecular genetic studies that have investigated the interplay of genetic and environmental factors in terms of influencing violence-related behavior. Together, these studies reveal promising evidence that genetic factors combine with environmental influences to impact on the development of violent behavior and related phenotypes. G × E have been identified for a number of candidate genes implicated in violence. Moreover, the reviewed G × E were found to extend to a broad range of environmental characteristics, including both adverse and favorable conditions. As has been the case with other G × E research, findings have been mixed, with considerable heterogeneity between studies. Lack of replication together with serious methodological limitations remains a major challenge for drawing definitive conclusions about the nature of violence-related G × E. In order to fulfill its potential, it is recommended that future G × E research needs to shift its focus to dissecting the neural mechanisms and the underlying pathophysiological pathways by which genetic variation may influence differential susceptibility to environmental exposures.

Genetic and environmental contributions to the relationship between violent victimization and criminal behavior

Studies have shown that there is a significant association between violent victimization and criminal behavior. One potential explanation for this association is that genetically mediated processes contribute to both violent victimization and criminal behavior. The current study uses data from the twin sample of the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health (n = 2,568) to examine whether genetic and/or environmental factors explain the correlation between violent victimization and criminal behavior in adolescence and early adulthood. Results from the bivariate genetic analyses reveal that genetic factors explain 39% of the covariance between violent victimization and delinquency in adolescence and 20% of the correlation between violent victimization and criminal behavior in early adulthood. The remaining covariance between violent victimization and criminal behaviors is attributed to the same nonshared environmental factors operating on both. The implications of these findings in relation to the victimization literature are discussed.

Extending research on the victim-offender overlap: evidence from a genetically informative analysis

Criminologists have long noted that offenders are more likely to be the victims of crime as compared to nonoffenders. What has not been established, however, is why there is a significant degree of victim-offender overlap. While numerous explanations have been advanced and a significant number of studies have been conducted, there remains much to be learned about the etiology of the victim-offender overlap. The current study pushes this line of research forward by offering and testing a unique hypothesis: that victimization and offending share a genetic etiology that leads to victim-offender overlap. Findings culled from a sample of sibling pairs drawn from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health indicated that genetic factors explained between 51% and 98% of the covariance between victims and offenders. Nonshared environmental factors explained the remaining covariance, while shared environmental factors explained none of the covariance. Implications and interpretations of these findings are considered.

Irritable oppositional defiance and callous unemotional traits: is the association partially explained by peer victimization?

BACKGROUND

Irritability is a subdimension of ODD, which predicts mainly to internalizing disorders, and to a lesser extent, conduct problems and callous-unemotional traits. Given that youth with similar dispositions as the irritable types - as well as youth high in callous-unemotional (CU) traits - have both been reported to experience high levels of victimization by peers, the authors examined an extension of the failure model (Patterson & Capaldi, 1990): that irritability increases peer victimization, which, in turn, predicts both CU and internalizing symptoms.

SAMPLE

Using data from 5,923 mother-child pairs participating in The Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children, the authors tested the outcomes of internalizing difficulties and callous-unemotional traits (based on mother report at age 13) via the predictors (at ages 8 and 10) of irritability (mother report) and the experience of peer victimization (youth report).

RESULTS

Irritability and peer victimization (age 10) directly predicted both CU and internalizing difficulties (age 13). Contrary to strict interpretation of the failure model, the significant indirect pathway described peer victimization (age 8) as increasing irritability (age 10), which, in turn, increased both CU and internalizing difficulties (age 13).

CONCLUSION

Results suggest that - for youth with irritable dispositions - co-occurring CU and internalizing difficulties can be acquired via adverse experiences in the social environment.

The effects of nonshared environments on adolescent depression: findings from a sample of monozygotic twins

PURPOSE

Behavioral genetic research has revealed that nonshared environments are associated with depression and depressive symptomatology. Research examining specific nonshared environments related to adolescent depression remains relatively limited. To address this gap in the published data, we analyzed a sample of monozygotic (MZ) twin pairs from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health (Add Health) to examine the effects of nonshared environmental variables on adolescent depression.

METHODS

We used the MZ-twin-difference-scores method on data from MZ twins (n = 289 twin pairs) drawn from the Add Health to examine the effect of specific nonshared environments on adolescent depression.

RESULTS

Findings from the MZ-difference-scores analyses revealed that between-twin differences in maternal disengagement were significantly related to differences in adolescent depression. Additional analyses revealed that the association between adolescent depression and maternal disengagement was largely a child-driven effect.

CONCLUSION

Compared with previous research that has implicated maternal socialization in the development of depression among adolescents, the results of the current study revealed that differences in maternal socialization were a response and not a cause of adolescent depression.

A dopamine gene (DRD2) distinguishes between offenders who have and have not been violently victimized

Research has shown that offenders, on average, are more likely to be violently victimized than nonoffenders. However, a substantial percentage of offenders are not violently victimized. The current study uses data from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health (Add Health) to investigate whether variants of a polymorphism in the dopamine D2 receptor gene (DRD2) distinguish between offenders who are violently victimized and offenders who are not violently victimized. The results show that offenders who are violently victimized are more likely to carry the DRD2 (A1) risk allele than offenders who have not been violently victimized.

Resiliency to victimization: the role of genetic factors

There is a burgeoning line of criminological research examining the genetic underpinnings to a wide array of antisocial phenotypes. From this perspective, genes are typically viewed as risk factors that increase the odds of various maladaptive behaviors. However, genes can also have protective effects that insulate against the deleterious effects of environmental pathogens. The authors use this logic as a springboard to examine whether four different genes protect against victimization in a sample of youths determined to be at risk for being victimized. Analysis of data drawn from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health (Add Health) revealed that certain genetic polymorphisms protected adolescents from victimization. The authors conclude by discussing the complex ways in which genes and the environment can promote resiliency to victimization.

The biosocial correlates of neuropsychological deficits: results from the national longitudinal study of adolescent health

A body of empirical research has revealed that neuropsychological functioning is one of the most consistent predictors of antisocial behavior. It is somewhat surprising however that criminological research has been slow to examine the different factors that are implicated in the development of neuropsychological deficits. This study addresses this gap in the literature by examining the effects that a number of social and biological variables have on neuropsychological functioning. Analysis of the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health (Add Health) indicates that postnatal exposure to cigarette smoke, duration of breastfeeding, maternal involvement, and household income predicts variation in adolescent and adulthood levels of neuropsychological functioning. Implications of the findings are noted and discussed.

Risk heterogeneity and recurrent violent victimization: the role of DRD4

For some people, victimization comes with significant costs. One of these costs is the likelihood of being victimized a subsequent time. Unfortunately, research shows that a portion of victims do in fact experience more than one victimization. Although this likelihood has been established, the reasons why some people are victimized more than once are not fully understood. One explanation centers on individual risk factors that, if left unchanged, will increase risk of further victimization. Previously unstudied, however, are genetic factors that may place and keep a victim at risk, even after an initial victimization. Using data from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health, the current study addresses this gap. The findings reveal that there is in fact a genetic factor, the 7R allele of the DRD4 gene, that distinguishes individuals who have been victimized once from those who have been victimized multiple times.

A gene X environment interaction between DRD2 and religiosity in the prediction of adolescent delinquent involvement in a sample of males

Human behavioral phenotypes are the result of complex interactions between genotype and the environment. Still, much remains unknown about the gene X environmental basis to adolescent delinquent involvement. Using data from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health, we examine whether a polymorphism in the dopamine D2 receptor (DRD2) gene interacts with religiosity to predict variation in adolescent delinquent involvement. The results of the analyses revealed a gene X environment interaction between the A-1 allele of DRD2 and religiosity in the prediction of adolescent delinquency. Limitations are noted, and the implications of the findings are discussed.

The interaction of DRD2 and violent victimization on depression: an analysis by gender and race

BACKGROUND

Recent research has shown that a polymorphism in the dopamine D2 receptor gene (DRD2) moderates the association between stressful life events and depression. The present study builds off this literature and examines whether DRD2 moderates the effect of violent victimization on depression. Furthermore, the current analyses investigate whether the effects of DRD2 and violent victimization vary by gender and by race for females.

METHODS

Respondents from waves II and III of the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health (Add Health) completed questionnaires regarding their depressive symptoms and violent victimization experiences (n = 2380).

RESULTS

Multivariate regression results reveal that violent victimization has a strong independent effect on depressive symptoms for Caucasian females. In contrast, violent victimization is only associated with higher levels of depressive symptoms among African American females when they carry at least one A1 allele of DRD2. Results also show that DRD2 has a significant independent effect on depressive symptoms for males and African American females.

CONCLUSIONS

The results suggest that African American females who carry the A1 allele of DRD2 may be more vulnerable to the negative effects of violent victimization than African American females who do not carry at least one copy of the A1 allele.

LIMITATIONS

The current study's findings may not generalize to clinical populations, adults, and individuals residing in other countries. In addition, the effects of DRD2 may reflect other polymorphisms that are in linkage with DRD2.

The interaction between genetic risk and childhood sexual abuse in the prediction of adolescent violent behavior

A rich line of empirical research has indicated that antisocial behaviors are the result of genetic factors and environmental factors working interactively. The current study uses this knowledge base as a springboard to examine the effects of childhood sexual abuse and genetic risk in the prediction of adolescent violent delinquency. To address this issue, data from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health were analyzed. The results of the analyses reveal that childhood sexual abuse interacts with genetic risk to predict involvement in violent delinquency for males. The effects of childhood sexual abuse and genetic risk as well as the interaction between the two are unrelated to violent delinquency for females. Implications of the study are discussed.