Glycogen synthase kinase-3beta inhibition attenuates the development of bleomycin-induced lung injury

Andrographolide derivative Andro-III modulates neuroinflammation and attenuates neuropathological changes of Alzheimer's disease via GSK-3β/NF-κB/CREB pathway

Andrographolide has anti-inflammatory and neuroprotective effects, making it a potential therapeutic option for Alzheimer's disease (AD). Our research group optimized its structure in a previous study to minimize the risk of renal toxicity, which would beneficial for future clinical research. This study aims to examine the impact of Andro-III on enhancing cognitive learning ability in 3xTg-AD mice, as well as the mechanisms involved. Andro-III improved spatial learning ability, prevented the loss of Nysted's vesicles, reduced the accumulation of β-amyloid (Aβ) and tau proteins, and suppressed microglial activation. Further research found that the expression of nuclear factor kappa-B RelA (NF-κB p65) expression and glycogen synthase kinase-3β (GSK-3β) activity were inhibited, while CREB was upregulated in brain tissue treated with Andro-III. Moreover, Andro-III downregulated the expression of IBA1 and inflammatory factors in microglial cells of mice induced by Aβ. The regulation of the GSK-3β/NF-κB/CREB pathway was similar to that observed in 3xTg-AD mice. Therefore, Andro-III modulates neuroinflammation and attenuates neuropathological changes of AD via the GSK-3β/NF-κB/CREB pathway.

Glycogen Synthase Kinase-3 Inhibition by CHIR99021 Promotes Alveolar Epithelial Cell Proliferation and Lung Regeneration in the Lipopolysaccharide-Induced Acute Lung Injury Mouse Model

Acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) is a life-threatening lung injury that currently lacks effective clinical treatments. Evidence highlights the potential role of glycogen synthase kinase-3 (GSK-3) inhibition in mitigating severe inflammation. The inhibition of GSK-3α/β by CHIR99021 promoted fetal lung progenitor proliferation and maturation of alveolar epithelial cells (AECs). The precise impact of CHIR99021 in lung repair and regeneration during acute lung injury (ALI) remains unexplored. This study intends to elucidate the influence of CHIR99021 on AEC behaviour during the peak of the inflammatory phase of ALI and, after its attenuation, during the repair and regeneration stage. Furthermore, a long-term evaluation was conducted post CHIR99021 treatment at a late phase of the disease. Our results disclosed the role of GSK-3α/β inhibition in promoting AECI and AECII proliferation. Later administration of CHIR99021 during ALI progression contributed to the transdifferentiation of AECII into AECI and an AECI/AECII increase, suggesting its contribution to the renewal of the alveolar epithelial population and lung regeneration. This effect was confirmed to be maintained histologically in the long term. These findings underscore the potential of targeted therapies that modulate GSK-3α/β inhibition, offering innovative approaches for managing acute lung diseases, mostly in later stages where no treatment is available.

Adelmidrol + sodium hyaluronate in IC/BPS or conditions associated to chronic urothelial inflammation. A translational study

Interstitial cystitis/painful bladder syndrome (IC/PBS) is a chronic bladder condition characterized by frequent urination, bladder inflammation and pain. It is a particular challenging disease and a clear unmet medical need in terms of identifying new therapeutic strategies. The aim of study was to evaluate the anti-inflammatory effects of intravesical Vessilen^® (a new formulation of 2% adelmidrol (the diethanolamide derivative of azelaic acid) + 0.1% sodium hyaluronate) administration in rodent models of IC/BPS and in IC/BPS patients or other bladder disorders. Acute and chronic animal models of cystitis were induced by a single or repetitive intraperitoneal injections of cyclophosphamide (CYP); patients with IC/BPS or with bladder pain syndrome associated with symptoms of the lower urinary tract treated once weekly by bladder instillation of Vessilen^® for 8 weeks. CYP instillation caused macroscopic and histological bladder alterations, inflammatory infiltrates, increased mast cell numbers, bladder pain, increased expression of nitrotyrosine, decreased expression of endothelial tight junction zonula occludens-1. Intravesical Vessilen® treatment was able to ameliorate CYP induced bladder inflammation and pain by inhibiting nuclear factor-κB pathway and inflammatory mediator levels as well as reduced mechanical allodynia and nerve growth factor levels. A significant improvement in quality of life and symptom intensity were evident in patients with IC/BPS or other bladder disorders treated with Vessilen^®. Vessilen^® could be a new therapeutic approach for human cystitis.

Oral Ultramicronized Palmitoylethanolamide: Plasma and Tissue Levels and Spinal Anti-hyperalgesic Effect

Palmitoylethanolamide (PEA) is a pleiotropic lipid mediator with established anti-inflammatory and anti-hyperalgesic activity. Ultramicronized PEA (PEA-um) has superior oral efficacy compared to naïve (non-micronized) PEA. The aim of the present study was two-fold: (1) to evaluate whether oral PEA-um has greater absorbability compared to naïve PEA, and its ability to reach peripheral and central tissues under healthy and local inflammatory conditions (carrageenan paw edema); (2) to better characterize the molecular pathways involved in PEA-um action, particularly at the spinal level. Rats were dosed with 30 mg/kg of [¹³C]₄-PEA-um or naïve [¹³C]₄-PEA by oral gavage, and [¹³C]₄-PEA levels quantified, as a function of time, by liquid chromatography/atmospheric pressure chemical ionization/mass spectrometry. Overall plasma levels were higher in both healthy and carrageenan-injected rats administered [¹³C]₄-PEA-um as compared to those receiving naïve [¹³C]₄-PEA, indicating the greater absorbability of PEA-um. Furthermore, carrageenan injection markedly favored an increase in levels of [¹³C]₄-PEA in plasma, paw and spinal cord. Oral treatment of carrageenan-injected rats with PEA-um (10 mg/kg) confirmed beneficial peripheral effects on paw inflammation, thermal hyperalgesia and tissue damage. Notably, PEA-um down-regulated distinct spinal inflammatory and oxidative pathways. These last findings instruct on spinal mechanisms involved in the anti-hyperalgesic effect of PEA-um in inflammatory pain.

Inhibiting Effect of Lithium Chloride on Endotoxin-induced Uveitis in Rats

PURPOSE

To evaluate the anti-inflammatory effect of lithium chloride in endotoxin-induced uveitis.

METHODS

A total of 200 Wistar rats were randomly divided into four groups: a control group; EIU group; LiCl-treated control group; and LiCl-treated lipopolysaccharide group. Clinical score, slit-lamp photography, hematoxylin and eosin (H&E) staining were used to determine the degree of inflammatory reaction. Level of glycogen synthase kinase3-beta and nuclear factor-kappa B p65 in iris-ciliary body was examined by western blot and RT-PCR. Cytokines in aqueous humor were detected by ELISA.

RESULTS

Pretreatment with LiCl produced an anti-inflammatory effect during endotoxin-induced uveitis (EIU). With LiCl treatment, the level of P-GSK3-β in iris-ciliary body was upregulated and the expression of NF-κB p65 was significantly suppressed during EIU.

CONCLUSIONS

LiCl pretreatment can suppress intraocular inflammatory responses in EIU rats. Mechanistically, this anti-inflammatory effect may be related to the inhibitory phosphorylation of GSK3-β.

Semaphorin3A-induced axonal transport mediated through phosphorylation of Axin-1 by GSK3β

The establishment of neuronal polarity is necessary for proper neuronal wiring. Semaphorin3A (Sema3A), originally identified as a repulsive axon guidance molecule, exerts a wide variety of biological functions through signaling pathways including sequential phosphorylation of collapsin response mediator protein by cyclin-dependent kinase-5 (Cdk5) and glycogen synthase kinase-3β (GSK3β). Sema3A acts on its receptor neuropilin-1 to regulate axonal transport. To delineate mechanism by which Sema3A induces axonal transport, we investigate whether GSK3β is involved in mediating Sema3A-induced axonal transport. 4-Benzyl-2-methyl-1,2,4-thiadiazolidine-3,5-dione, an inhibitor of GSK3β, suppressed Sema3A-induced antero- and retrograde axonal transport. Introduction of either GSK3β mutants, GSK3β-L128A or K85M, suppressed Sema3A-induced axonal transport. On the other hand, introduction of GSK3β-R96A did not affect the Sema3A effect, suggesting that unprimed substrates are primarily involved in Sema3A-induced axonal transport. Overexpression of a partial fragment of frequently rearranged in advanced T-cell lymphomas 1 (FRATtide), which interferes the interaction between GSK3β and Axis inhibitor-1 (Axin-1), also suppressed Sema3A-induced transport. siRNA knockdown of Axin-1, an unprimed substrate of GSK3β, suppressed Sema3A-induced antero- and retrograde axonal transport. These results indicate that GSK3β and Axin-1 are involved in Sema3A-induced bidirectional axonal transport. This finding should provide a clue for understanding of mechanisms of a wide variety of biological activities of Sema3A.

Inhibition of glycogen synthase kinase-3β attenuates acute kidney injury in sodium taurocholate‑induced severe acute pancreatitis in rats

The aim of the present study was to investigate the efficacy of 4‑benzyl‑2‑methyl‑1,2,4‑thiadiazolidine‑3,5‑dione (TDZD‑8), the selective inhibitor of glycogen synthase kinase‑3β (GSK‑3β), on the development of acute kidney injury in an experimental model of sodium taurocholate‑induced severe acute pancreatitis (SAP) in rats. The serum amylase, lipase, interleukin‑1β and interleukin‑6 levels, and the pancreatic pathological score were examined to determine the magnitude of pancreatitis injury. The serum creatinine and blood urea nitrogen levels, myeloperoxidase (MPO) activity and renal histological grading were measured to assess the magnitude of SAP‑induced acute kidney injury. The activation of nuclear factor‑κB (NF‑κB) was examined using an immunohistochemistry assay. The expression of GSK‑3β, phospho‑GSK‑3β (Ser9), tumour necrosis factor‑α (TNF‑α), intercellular adhesion molecule‑1 (ICAM‑1) and inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) protein in the kidney was characterised using western blot analysis. TDZD‑8 attenuated (i) serum amylase, lipase and renal dysfunction; (ii) the serum concentrations of proinflammatory cytokines; (iii) pancreatic and renal pathological injury; (iv) renal MPO activity and (v) NF‑κB activation and TNF‑α, ICAM‑1 and iNOS protein expression in the kidney. The results obtained in the present study suggest that the inhibition of GSK‑3β attenuates renal disorders associated with SAP through the inhibition of NF‑κB activation and the downregulation of the expression of proinflammatory cytokines, TNF‑α, ICAM‑1 and iNOS in rats. Blocking GSK‑3β protein kinase activity may be a novel approach to the treatment of this inflammatory condition.

GSK3β and the control of infectious bacterial diseases

Glycogen synthase kinase 3β (GSK3β) has been shown to be a crucial mediator of the intensity and direction of the innate immune system response to bacterial stimuli. This review focuses on: (i) the central role of GSK3β in the regulation of pathogen-induced inflammatory responses through the regulation of pro- and anti-inflammatory cytokine production, (ii) the extensive ongoing efforts to exploit GSK3β for its therapeutic potential in the control of infectious diseases, and (iii) the increasing evidence that specific pathogens target GSK3β-related pathways for immune evasion. A better understanding of complex bacteria-GSK3β interactions is likely to lead to more effective anti-inflammatory interventions and novel targets to circumvent pathogen colonization and survival.

Glycogen synthase kinase 3 inhibitor attenuates endotoxin-induced liver injury

BACKGROUND/AIMS

Endotoxin (lipopolysaccharide, LPS)-induced acute liver injury was attenuated by endotoxin tolerance (ET), which is characterized by phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase pathway/Akt signaling. Glycogen synthase kinase 3 (GSK-3) acts downstream of phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase pathway/Akt and GSK-3 inhibitor protects against organic injury. This study evaluates the hypothesis that ET attenuated LPS-induced liver injury through inhibiting GSK-3 functional activity and downstream signaling.

METHODS

Sprague-Dawley rats with or without low-dose LPS pretreatment were challenged with or without large dose of LPS and subsequently received studies. Serum tumor necrosis factor-alpha, interleukin-10, alanine aminotransferase, lactate dehydrogenase, and total bilirubin levels were analyzed, morphology of liver tissue was performed, glycogen content, myeloperoxidase content, phagocytosis activity of Kupffer cells, and the expression and inhibitory phosphorylation as well as kinase activity of GSK-3 were examined. Survival after LPS administration was also determined.

RESULTS

LPS induced significant increases of serum TNF-α, alanine aminotransferase, lactate dehydrogenase, and total bilirubin (P < 0.05), which were companied by obvious alterations in liver: the injury of liver tissue, the decrease of glycogen, the infiltration of neutrophils, and the enhancement of phagocytosis of Kupffer cells (P < 0.05). LPS pretreatment significantly attenuated these alterations, promoted the inhibitory phosphorylation of GSK-3 and inhibited its kinase activity, and improved the survival rate (P < 0.05).

CONCLUSIONS

ET attenuated LPS-induced acute liver injury through inhibiting GSK-3 functional activity and its downstream signaling.

New drug targets in depression: inflammatory, cell-mediated immune, oxidative and nitrosative stress, mitochondrial, antioxidant, and neuroprogressive pathways. And new drug candidates--Nrf2 activators and GSK-3 inhibitors

This paper reviews new drug targets in the treatment of depression and new drug candidates to treat depression. Depression is characterized by aberrations in six intertwined pathways: (1) inflammatory pathways as indicated by increased levels of proinflammatory cytokines, e.g. interleukin-1 (IL-1), IL-6, and tumour necrosis factor α. (2) Activation of cell-mediated immune pathways as indicated by an increased production of interferon γ and neopterin. (3) Increased reactive oxygen and nitrogen species and damage by oxidative and nitrosative stress (O&NS), including lipid peroxidation, damage to DNA, proteins and mitochondria. (4) Lowered levels of key antioxidants, such as coenzyme Q10, zinc, vitamin E, glutathione, and glutathione peroxidase. (5) Damage to mitochondria and mitochondrial DNA and reduced activity of respiratory chain enzymes and adenosine triphosphate production. (6) Neuroprogression, which is the progressive process of neurodegeneration, apoptosis, and reduced neurogenesis and neuronal plasticity, phenomena that are probably caused by inflammation and O&NS. Antidepressants tend to normalize the above six pathways. Targeting these pathways has the potential to yield antidepressant effects, e.g. using cytokine antagonists, minocycline, Cox-2 inhibitors, statins, acetylsalicylic acid, ketamine, ω3 poly-unsaturated fatty acids, antioxidants, and neurotrophic factors. These six pathways offer new, pathophysiologically guided drug targets suggesting that novel therapies could be developed that target these six pathways simultaneously. Both nuclear factor (erythroid-derived 2)-like 2 (Nrf2) activators and glycogen synthase kinase-3 (GSK-3) inhibitors target the six above-mentioned pathways. GSK-3 inhibitors have antidepressant effects in animal models of depression. Nrf2 activators and GSK-3 inhibitors have the potential to be advanced to phase-2 clinical trials to examine whether they augment the efficacy of antidepressants or are useful as monotherapy.

Glycogen synthase kinase-3 facilitates con a-induced IFN-γ-- mediated immune hepatic injury

Immune hepatic injury induced by Con A results primarily from IFN-γ-mediated inflammation, followed by hepatic cell death. Glycogen synthase kinase (GSK)-3, which acts proapoptotically and is proinflammatory, is also important for facilitating IFN-γ signaling. We hypothesized a pathogenic role for GSK-3 in Con A hepatic injury. Con A stimulation caused GSK-3 activation in the livers of C57BL/6 mice. Inhibiting GSK-3 reduced Con A hepatic injury, including hepatic necrosis and apoptosis, inflammation, infiltration of T cells and granulocytes, and deregulated expression of adhesion molecule CD54. Con A induced hepatic injury in an IFN-γ receptor 1-dependent manner. Con A/IFN-γ induced activation and expression of STAT1 in a GSK-3-dependent manner. GSK-3 facilitated IFN-γ-induced inducible NO synthase, but had limited effects on CD95 upregulation and CD95-mediated hepatocyte apoptosis in vitro. Notably, inhibiting GSK-3 decreased Con A-induced IFN-γ production in both wild-type and IFN-γ receptor 1-deficient C57BL/6 mice. In Con A-activated NKT cells, GSK-3 was also activated and was required for nuclear translocation of T-box transcription factor Tbx21, a transcription factor of IFN-γ, but it was not required for CD95 ligand expression or activation-induced cell death. These results demonstrate the dual and indispensable role of GSK-3 in Con A hepatic injury by facilitating IFN-γ-induced hepatopathy.

Glycogen synthase kinase 3: a point of convergence for the host inflammatory response

The phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K) pathway has been shown to play a central role in regulating the host inflammatory response. Recent studies characterizing the downstream effector molecules within the PI3K pathway have identified that the serine/threonine kinase, glycogen synthase kinase 3 (GSK3), plays a pivotal role in regulating the production of pro- and anti-inflammatory cytokines. In innate immune cells, GSK3 inactivation augments anti-inflammatory cytokine production while concurrently suppressing the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines. The role of GSK3 in T cell biology has also been studied in detail and is involved in regulating multiple downstream signaling processes mediated by the T cell receptor (TCR), the co-stimulatory molecule CD28, and the IL-17 receptor. In vivo studies assessing the therapeutic properties of GSK3 inhibitors have shown that the inactivation of GSK3 can protect the host from immune-mediated pathology and death. This review will highlight the immunological importance GSK3 plays within different signal transduction pathways of the immune system, the cellular mechanisms regulating the activity of GSK3, the role of GSK3 in innate and adaptive immune responses, and the in vivo use of GSK3 inhibitors to treat inflammatory mediated diseases in animals.

The antinociceptive effects of AR-A014418, a selective inhibitor of glycogen synthase kinase-3 beta, in mice

We investigated the antinociceptive effects of AR-A014418, a selective inhibitor of glycogen synthase kinase-3β (GSK-3β) in mice. A 30-minute pretreatment with AR-A014418 (.1 and 1 mg/kg, intraperitoneal [ip]) inhibited nociception induced by an ip injection of acetic acid. AR-A014418 pretreatment (.1 and .3 mg/kg, ip) also decreased the late (inflammatory) phase of formalin-induced licking, without affecting responses of the first (neurogenic) phase. In a different set of experiments, AR-A014418 (.1-10 μg/site) coinjected intraplantarly (ipl) with formalin inhibited the late phase of formalin-induced nociception. Furthermore, AR-A014418 administration (1 and 10 ng/site, intrathecal [it]) inhibited both phases of formalin-induced licking. In addition, AR-A014418 coinjection (10 ng/site, it) inhibited nociception induced by glutamate, N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA), (±)-1-aminocyclopentane-trans-1,3-dicarboxylic acid (trans-ACPD), tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α), and interleukin-1beta (IL-1β) by 47 ± 12%, 48 ± 11%, 31 ± 8%, 46 ± 13%, and 44 ± 11%, respectively. In addition, a 30-minute pretreatment with NP031115 (3 and 10 mg/kg, ip), a different GSK-3 β inhibitor, also attenuated the late phase of formalin-induced nociception. Collectively, these results provide convincing evidence that AR-A014418, given by local, systemic, and central routes, produces antinociception in several mouse models of nociception. The AR-A014418-dependent antinociceptive effects were induced by modulation of the glutamatergic system through metabotropic and ionotropic (NMDA) receptors and the inhibition of the cytokine (TNF-α and IL-1β) signaling.

PERSPECTIVE

These results suggest that GSK-3β may be a novel pharmacological target for the treatment of pain.

Signaling mechanism of HIV-1 gp120 and virion-induced IL-1beta release in primary human macrophages

HIV-1 envelope glycoprotein gp120 induces, independently of infection, the release of proinflammatory cytokines, including IL-1beta from macrophages, that are implicated in the pathogenesis of HIV-associated dementia. However, the signal transduction pathways involved have not been fully defined. Previously, our laboratory reported that soluble gp120 activates multiple protein kinases in primary human monocyte-derived macrophages, including the Src family kinase Lyn, PI3K, and the focal adhesion-related proline-rich tyrosine kinase Pyk2. In this study we showed that gp120 induces IL-1beta release from macrophages in a time- and concentration-dependent manner through binding to the chemokine receptor CCR5 and coupling to G(i)alpha protein. Using pharmacological inhibitors and small interfering RNA gene knockdown, we demonstrated that concomitant activation of Lyn, Pyk2, and class IA PI3K are required for gp120-induced IL-1beta production. By coimmunoprecipitation and immunofluorescence confocal microscopy, we showed that CCR5 activation by gp120 triggered the assembly of a signaling complex involving endogenous Lyn, PI3K, and Pyk2 and is associated with PI3K and Pyk2 translocation from the cytoplasm to the membrane where they colocalized with Lyn. Finally, we demonstrated that virion-associated gp120 induced similar response, as structurally intact whole virions also triggered IL-1beta release and re-localization of PI3K and Pyk2. This study identifies a novel signaling mechanism for HIV-1-induced IL-1beta production by primary human macrophages that may be involved in the neuropathogenesis of HIV-associated dementia.

Experimental Study of the Effects of the Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Thyroid Axis on Platelet Functional Activity

The hormones of the hypothalamic-pituitary-thyroid axis exert various effects in organism, but their influence on the functional activity of platelets is relatively unknown. To establish the effect of the hormones of the hypothalamic-pituitary-thyroid axis on the functional activity of platelets by means of determining the plasma level of beta-thromboglobulin (β-TG) and platelet factor 4 (PF4) a study was conducted on 40 white male rats of the “Wistar” breed. The necessary blood volume was obtained under ether narcosis by cardiac puncture in CTAD-test-tubes. Using Diagnostica Stago (France) tests, by means of enzyme-immune test, the level of two of the most informative platelet secretion markers was determined. The hormones: Thyreotropin releasing hormone (0.06 mg/kg bw), Thyroid stimulating hormone (1 MU/kg bw), Trijodthyroninum (0.08 mg/kg bw), Thyroxin (0.08 mg/kg bw), applied s.c. on three consecutive days strongly reduce the plasma level of β-TG (p<0.001) and PF 4 (p < 0.001). The reduced level of β-TG and PF 4 in the plasma is an indicator of their reduced functional activity, which is one of the determinants for the development of hemocoagulation. The functional activity of platelets in rats, determined by the level of β-TG and PF 4, is significantly suppressed by all hormones of the hypothalamic-pituitary-thyroid axis.

RANTES (CCL5) potentiates calcium ionophore in the production of LTB4 in rat adherent macrophages from granuloma induced by KMnO4: inhibiton by NDGA

The activation of monocytes/macrophages by several stimuli is an initial event in the inflammatory response. To ascertain the importance of LTB(4) and 5-lypoxigenase in the inflammatory site, we isolated and stimulated rat adherent granuloma macrophages (RAGMs) with calcium ionophore in the presence or absence of regulated on activation, normal T expressed and secreted (RANTES) [CCL5] at different concentrations. We tested the hypothesis that RANTES may influence the production of LTB(4) stimulated by calcium ionophore A23187 (2.5 microM/ml) in rat adherent granuloma macrophages derived from granuloma induced by potassium permanganate diluted 1:40 saturated solution. To test this hypothesis, we measured LTB(4) production, in rat granuloma macrophages stimulated with A23187 (2.5 microM) alone and in combination with RANTES at different concentrations. In these studies, the cell-free supernatant of stimulated RAGMs with the ionophore A23187, resulted in a drastic increase of LTB(4). However, when the cells were treated with the combination RANTES plus A23187 the stimulatory effect was more pronounced than A23187 alone. LTB(4) production was quantitated. The calcium ionophore A23187 directly induced LTB(4) in macrophages, this production was markedly enhanced when the cells were pretreated with RANTES. However, the addition of RANTES in the absence of calcium ionophore A23187 did not directly induce LTB(4) release, nor was lypoxigenase expression augmented. Preincubation of RAGMs with NDGA (nordihydroguiaretic acid) (10(-5)M) completely abolished the production of LTB4 on RAGMSs challenged with A23187 in combination with RANTES or A23187 alone in the supernatants. Similar effects were obtained when the cells were pretreated with dexamethasone. These data suggest, for the first time, that RANTES may stimulate the release of LTB(4), only when it is associated to other stimuli and for this reason we conclude that RANTES modulates inflammatory diseases, and may require other stimuli to be effective in amplifying its spectrum of action(s).