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Slade K, Justice L, Martijn F, Borschmann R, Baguley T. Deaths among adults under supervision of the England and Wales' probation services: variation in individual and criminal justice-related factors by cause of death. HEALTH & JUSTICE 2024; 12:10. [PMID: 38411785 PMCID: PMC10898034 DOI: 10.1186/s40352-024-00263-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2023] [Accepted: 02/08/2024] [Indexed: 02/28/2024]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The mortality rate among people under probation supervision in the community is greater than that among incarcerated people and that among the general population. However, there is limited research on the distinct vulnerabilities and risks underlying the causes of death in this population. In this retrospective cohort study, we examined the individual and criminal justice-related factors associated with different causes of death. Factors were assessed in relation to the type of supervision, distinguishing between those under post-custodial release and those serving a community sentence. RESULTS The study utilised the official data held by His Majesty's Prison and Probation Service in England and Wales on the deaths of men and women under probation supervision between 01 April 2019 and 31 March 2021 where the cause of death had been definitively recorded (n = 1770). The high risk of deaths primarily caused by external factors (i.e., suspected suicide (10%), homicide (5%), and drug-related death (26%)) in this population was confirmed. A Gaussian Graphical Model (GGM) demonstrated unique relationships with suspected suicide and drug-related deaths for known suicide risk, history of drug use and recent (< 28 days of death) enforcement action due to a breach of probation conditions. Our findings suggest that that familial violence and abuse may be relevant in suicide and drug-related deaths and that minority groups may experience disproportional risk to certain types of death. CONCLUSIONS This study identified unique risk indicators and modifiable factors for deaths primarily caused by external factors in this population within the health and justice spheres. It emphasised the importance of addressing health inequalities in this population and improved joint-working across health and justice. This involves ensuring that research, policies, training, and services are responsive to the complex needs of those under probation supervision, including those serving community sentences. Only then can we hope to see lower rates of death within this population.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karen Slade
- School of Social Sciences, Department of Psychology, Nottingham Trent University, Nottingham, NG1 4FQ, UK.
| | - Lucy Justice
- School of Social Sciences, Department of Psychology, Nottingham Trent University, Nottingham, NG1 4FQ, UK
| | - Frederica Martijn
- School of Social Sciences, Department of Psychology, Nottingham Trent University, Nottingham, NG1 4FQ, UK
| | - Rohan Borschmann
- Centre for Mental Health, Melbourne School of Population and Global Health, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC, 3052, Australia
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Oxford, Warneford Hospital, Oxford, OX3 7JX, UK
- Centre for Adolescent Health, Murdoch Children's Research Institute, Melbourne, VIC, 3010, Australia
- Melbourne School of Psychological Sciences, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC, 3052, Australia
- School of Population Health, Curtin University, Perth, WA, Australia
| | - Thom Baguley
- School of Social Sciences, Department of Psychology, Nottingham Trent University, Nottingham, NG1 4FQ, UK
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McKay T. When State Violence Comes Home: From Criminal Legal System Exposure to Intimate Partner Violence in a Time of Mass Incarceration. JOURNAL OF INTERPERSONAL VIOLENCE 2023; 38:2683-2715. [PMID: 35696614 DOI: 10.1177/08862605221106141] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Exceptionally high rates of partner violence perpetration are evident among men returning from prison. Two bodies of scholarship, one on family stress and another on exposure to state violence, each suggest that criminal legal system exposure could promote partner violence perpetration via changes in men's behavioral health and interpersonal approach and in couples' conflict dynamics. Such relationships have not been tested in quantitative research. Structural equation models were fitted to longitudinal, couples-based survey data from the Multi-site Family Study on Incarceration, Parenting, and Partnering. Participants included men returning from a state prison term in five U.S. states (N = 1112) and their committed intimate or co-parenting partners (N = 1112). Models tested hypothesized pathways from three dimensions of criminal legal system exposure to later partner violence perpetration. In fitted models, men's childhood criminal legal system exposure predicts their post-prison partner violence perpetration via adult post-traumatic stress symptoms, reactivity, avoidance, and dysfunctional couple conflict dynamics. Men's cumulative criminal legal system exposure in adulthood predicts their post-prison partner violence perpetration via addiction and dysfunctional couple conflict. These initial results suggest that mass-scale incarceration could worsen partner violence via men's psychological and interpersonal adaptations to criminal legal system contact, particularly when such contact is sustained or occurs at a developmentally significant period in the life course.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tasseli McKay
- Department of Sociology, 3065Duke University, Durham, NC, USA
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Willoughby M, Kinner SA. The absence of women involved in the criminal justice system from Australia's national discussion on preventing family and domestic violence. Med J Aust 2021; 215:487. [PMID: 34676556 DOI: 10.5694/mja2.51319] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/22/2021] [Revised: 05/04/2021] [Accepted: 05/05/2021] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Melissa Willoughby
- University of Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC.,Centre for Adolescent Health, Murdoch Children's Research Institute, Melbourne, VIC
| | - Stuart A Kinner
- University of Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC.,Centre for Adolescent Health, Murdoch Children's Research Institute, Melbourne, VIC
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Willoughby M, Young JT, Spittal MJ, Borschmann R, Janca E, Kinner PSA. Violence-related deaths among people released from incarceration: systematic review and meta-analysis of cohort studies. EClinicalMedicine 2021; 41:101162. [PMID: 34746721 PMCID: PMC8551597 DOI: 10.1016/j.eclinm.2021.101162] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND People released from incarceration have an increased risk of violence-related death. As deaths from violence are a rare event, meta-analysis is needed to calculate reliable estimates of this risk. We examined the crude mortality rates (CMRs), standardised mortality ratios (SMRs), and predictive factors for violence-related deaths among people released from incarceration. METHODS In this systematic review and meta-analysis, we searched MEDLINE, PubMed, PsycINFO, Scopus, Web of Science, CINCH, and Criminal Justice Abstracts from inception to 14 September 2020 for cohort studies published in English that examined violence-related deaths occurring in the community following release from adult or youth incarceration. We used the Methodological Standard for Epidemiological Research (MASTER) scale to assess the quality of included studies. We conducted a random-effects meta-analysis to calculate pooled estimates of the CMRs and SMRs. Heterogeneity was assessed using univariable meta-regression. This review was registered with the International Prospective Register of Systematic Reviews (PROSPERO; CRD42020209422). FINDINGS Our search identified 2,489 records, from which 11 studies met the eligibility criteria. The pooled CMR for violence-related deaths after release from incarceration was 78·7 per 100,000 person-years (95%CI 58·0-99·5). The pooled SMR was 7·6 (95%CI 2·4-12·8). The estimate of heterogeneity was high (I2≥99%) and the Cochran's Q test was significant (p<0·001) for the pooled CMR and SMR. Study design (prospective vs. retrospective; p=0·001) and type of incarceration facility (youth detention vs. prison; p=0·006) were identified as possible sources of heterogeneity for CMRs. Risk factors for violence-related death after release were reported in only five studies. These included being male (n=3), Black or Hispanic in the United States (n=3), and younger age at release from incarceration (n=2). INTERPRETATION People released from incarceration are almost eight times more likely to die from violence than the general population. Violence-related deaths are preventable, and the high rate at which they occur after release from incarceration represents an important public health issue requiring targeted, evidence-based response. FUNDING None.
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Affiliation(s)
- Melissa Willoughby
- Melbourne School of Population and Global Health, The University of Melbourne, 207 Bouverie Street, Carlton, Victoria, 3053, Australia
- Centre for Adolescent Health, Murdoch Children's Research Institute, 50 Flemington Road, Parkville, Victoria, 3052, Australia
- Corresponding author: Melissa Willoughby, Justice Health Unit, Level 4, 207 Bouverie Street, Carlton, The University of Melbourne, Victoria, 3053, Australia. ORCID ID: 0000-0002-4360-2605
| | - Jesse T. Young
- Melbourne School of Population and Global Health, The University of Melbourne, 207 Bouverie Street, Carlton, Victoria, 3053, Australia
- Centre for Adolescent Health, Murdoch Children's Research Institute, 50 Flemington Road, Parkville, Victoria, 3052, Australia
- School of Population and Global Health, The University of Western Australia, 35 Stirling Highway, Perth, Western Australia, 6009, Australia
- National Drug Research Institute, Curtin University, 7 Parker Place, Bentley, Western Australia, 6102, Australia
| | - Matthew J. Spittal
- Melbourne School of Population and Global Health, The University of Melbourne, 207 Bouverie Street, Carlton, Victoria, 3053, Australia
| | - Rohan Borschmann
- Melbourne School of Population and Global Health, The University of Melbourne, 207 Bouverie Street, Carlton, Victoria, 3053, Australia
- Centre for Adolescent Health, Murdoch Children's Research Institute, 50 Flemington Road, Parkville, Victoria, 3052, Australia
- Health Service and Population Research Department, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology & Neuroscience, King's College London, 16 De Crespigny Park, Camberwell, London SE5 8AF, United Kingdom
- Melbourne School of Psychological Sciences, The University of Melbourne, Grattan Street, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
| | - Emilia Janca
- Melbourne School of Population and Global Health, The University of Melbourne, 207 Bouverie Street, Carlton, Victoria, 3053, Australia
| | - Prof Stuart A. Kinner
- Melbourne School of Population and Global Health, The University of Melbourne, 207 Bouverie Street, Carlton, Victoria, 3053, Australia
- Centre for Adolescent Health, Murdoch Children's Research Institute, 50 Flemington Road, Parkville, Victoria, 3052, Australia
- Mater Research Institute-UQ, University of Queensland, Mater Hospital, Raymond Terrace, South Brisbane, Queensland, 4101, Australia
- Griffith Criminology Institute, Griffith University, 176 Messines Ridge Road, Mount Gravatt, Queensland, 4122, Australia
- School of Public Health and Preventive Medicine, Monash University, 553 St Kilda Road, Melbourne, Victoria, 3004, Australia
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Willoughby M, Keen C, Young JT, Spittal MJ, Borschmann R, Janca E, Kinner SA. Violence-related morbidity among people released from prison in Australia: A data linkage study. Drug Alcohol Rev 2021; 41:457-466. [PMID: 34510627 DOI: 10.1111/dar.13380] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/09/2021] [Revised: 07/22/2021] [Accepted: 08/09/2021] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION People released from prison have an increased risk of morbidity, including from nonfatal violence. We examined the incidence and predictors of violence-related morbidity after release from prison and investigated whether there are differences according to sex and Indigenous status. METHODS Baseline data were collected from 1325 people within 6 weeks of release from prisons in Queensland, Australia, between 1 August 2008 and 31 July 2010. Data were linked to state-wide health (ambulance, emergency department and hospital) and prison records, and national death records until 31 July 2012. Predictors were identified using a multivariable Andersen-Gill model. Differences according to sex and Indigenous status were investigated using effect modification. RESULTS A total of 225 (18.2%) people experienced 410 violence-related events that were recorded in health records. The incidence was 12.8 per 100 person-years [95% confidence interval (CI) 11.7, 14.1]. Risk factors for violence-related morbidity included diagnosed mental illness [hazard ratio (HR) = 2.0, 95% CI 1.1, 3.8], substance use disorder (HR = 1.6, 95% CI 1.1, 2.3) or dual diagnosis (HR = 3.2, 95% CI 2.2, 4.8); high-risk alcohol use (HR = 2.1, 95% CI 1.5, 2.8); being Indigenous (HR = 1.7, 95% CI 1.2, 2.5); and two or more prison releases (HR = 1.7, 95% CI 1.2, 2.6). Indigenous status modified the risk of violence-related morbidity, with Indigenous men having twice the risk of non-Indigenous men (HR = 1.9, 95% CI 1.3, 2.8). DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS Approximately one in five people released from prisons in Queensland experienced violence-related morbidity. Coordinated and continuous mental health and substance use treatment from prison to the community may reduce the risk of violence-related morbidity in this population.
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Affiliation(s)
- Melissa Willoughby
- Melbourne School of Population and Global Health, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Australia.,Centre for Adolescent Health, Murdoch Children's Research Institute, Melbourne, Australia
| | - Claire Keen
- Melbourne School of Population and Global Health, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Australia
| | - Jesse T Young
- Melbourne School of Population and Global Health, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Australia.,Centre for Adolescent Health, Murdoch Children's Research Institute, Melbourne, Australia.,School of Population and Global Health, The University of Western Australia, Perth, Australia.,National Drug Research Institute, Curtin University, Perth, Australia
| | - Matthew J Spittal
- Melbourne School of Population and Global Health, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Australia
| | - Rohan Borschmann
- Melbourne School of Population and Global Health, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Australia.,Centre for Adolescent Health, Murdoch Children's Research Institute, Melbourne, Australia.,Health Service and Population Research Department, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology and Neuroscience, King's College London, London, UK.,Melbourne School of Psychological Sciences, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Australia
| | - Emilia Janca
- Melbourne School of Population and Global Health, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Australia
| | - Stuart A Kinner
- Melbourne School of Population and Global Health, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Australia.,Centre for Adolescent Health, Murdoch Children's Research Institute, Melbourne, Australia.,Mater Research Institute-UQ, University of Queensland, Mater Hospital, Brisbane, Australia.,Griffith Criminology Institute, Griffith University, Brisbane, Australia.,School of Public Health and Preventive Medicine, Monash University, Melbourne, Australia
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Willoughby M, Young JT, Spittal MJ, Borschmann R, Janca EK, Kinner SA. Violence-related deaths among people released from incarceration: protocol for a systematic review. BMJ Open 2021; 11:e045601. [PMID: 33472793 PMCID: PMC7818808 DOI: 10.1136/bmjopen-2020-045601] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Young people and adults released from incarceration have a risk of dying from violence that far exceeds that in the general population. Despite this, evidence regarding the incidence, elevated risk and predictive factors for violence-related deaths after release have not yet been synthesised. This information is important to inform the development of evidence-based approaches to effectively prevent deaths from violence in this population. This systematic review will synthesise the literature examining the crude mortality rates (CMRs), standardised mortality ratios (SMRs) and predictive factors for violence-related deaths among people released from incarceration. METHODS AND ANALYSIS We searched key electronic health, social science and criminology databases (MEDLINE, PubMed, PsycINFO, Scopus, Web of Science, CINCH, Criminal Justice Abstracts) for peer-reviewed cohort studies published in English on 14th September 2020. Our primary outcome of interest is violence-related deaths occurring in the community following release from incarceration. We will not restrict study eligibility by year of publication or age of participants. The Methodological Standard for Epidemiological Research (MASTER) scale will be used to assess the quality of included studies. If there are sufficient studies and homogeneity between studies, we will conduct meta-analyses to calculate pooled estimates of CMRs, SMRs or predictive factors for violence-related deaths. If there is a sufficient number of included studies, meta-regression will be conducted to examine the influence of subgroups and methodological factors on the CMRs, SMRs or predictive factors. If the studies do not report sufficient data, or if there is substantial heterogeneity, findings will be presented in a narrative form. ETHICS AND DISSEMINATION This review is exempt from ethics approval as it will synthesise findings from published studies that have already obtained ethics approval. Our findings will be disseminated through a peer-reviewed journal article, and national and international conference and seminar presentations. TRIAL REGISTRATION DETAILS This study is registered with PROSPERO (CRD42020209422).
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Affiliation(s)
- Melissa Willoughby
- Melbourne School of Population and Global Health, The University of Melbourne, Carlton, Victoria, Australia
- Centre for Adolescent Health, Murdoch Childrens Research Institute, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
| | - Jesse T Young
- Melbourne School of Population and Global Health, The University of Melbourne, Carlton, Victoria, Australia
- Centre for Adolescent Health, Murdoch Childrens Research Institute, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
- School of Population and Global Health, The University of Western Australia, Perth, Western Australia, Australia
- National Drug Research Institute, Curtin University, Perth, Western Australia, Australia
| | - Matthew J Spittal
- Melbourne School of Population and Global Health, The University of Melbourne, Carlton, Victoria, Australia
| | - Rohan Borschmann
- Melbourne School of Population and Global Health, The University of Melbourne, Carlton, Victoria, Australia
- Centre for Adolescent Health, Murdoch Childrens Research Institute, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
- Health Service and Population Research Department, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology & Neuroscience, King's College London, London, England, UK
- Melbourne School of Psychological Sciences, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Emilia K Janca
- Melbourne School of Population and Global Health, The University of Melbourne, Carlton, Victoria, Australia
| | - Stuart A Kinner
- Melbourne School of Population and Global Health, The University of Melbourne, Carlton, Victoria, Australia
- Centre for Adolescent Health, Murdoch Childrens Research Institute, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
- Mater Research Institute-UQ, University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
- Griffith Criminology Institute, Griffith University, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
- School of Public Health and Preventive Medicine, Monash University, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
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