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Koncz G, Jenei V, Tóth M, Váradi E, Kardos B, Bácsi A, Mázló A. Damage-mediated macrophage polarization in sterile inflammation. Front Immunol 2023; 14:1169560. [PMID: 37465676 PMCID: PMC10351389 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2023.1169560] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/19/2023] [Accepted: 06/07/2023] [Indexed: 07/20/2023] Open
Abstract
Most of the leading causes of death, such as cardiovascular diseases, cancer, dementia, neurodegenerative diseases, and many more, are associated with sterile inflammation, either as a cause or a consequence of these conditions. The ability to control the progression of inflammation toward tissue resolution before it becomes chronic holds significant clinical potential. During sterile inflammation, the initiation of inflammation occurs through damage-associated molecular patterns (DAMPs) in the absence of pathogen-associated molecules. Macrophages, which are primarily localized in the tissue, play a pivotal role in sensing DAMPs. Furthermore, macrophages can also detect and respond to resolution-associated molecular patterns (RAMPs) and specific pro-resolving mediators (SPMs) during sterile inflammation. Macrophages, being highly adaptable cells, are particularly influenced by changes in the microenvironment. In response to the tissue environment, monocytes, pro-inflammatory macrophages, and pro-resolution macrophages can modulate their differentiation state. Ultimately, DAMP and RAMP-primed macrophages, depending on the predominant subpopulation, regulate the balance between inflammatory and resolving processes. While sterile injury and pathogen-induced reactions may have distinct effects on macrophages, most studies have focused on macrophage responses induced by pathogens. In this review, which emphasizes available human data, we illustrate how macrophages sense these mediators by examining the expression of receptors for DAMPs, RAMPs, and SPMs. We also delve into the signaling pathways induced by DAMPs, RAMPs, and SPMs, which primarily contribute to the regulation of macrophage differentiation from a pro-inflammatory to a pro-resolution phenotype. Understanding the regulatory mechanisms behind the transition between macrophage subtypes can offer insights into manipulating the transition from inflammation to resolution in sterile inflammatory diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gábor Koncz
- Department of Immunology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Debrecen, Debrecen, Hungary
| | - Viktória Jenei
- Department of Immunology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Debrecen, Debrecen, Hungary
| | - Márta Tóth
- Department of Immunology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Debrecen, Debrecen, Hungary
| | - Eszter Váradi
- Institute of Genetics, Biological Research Centre, Eotvos Lorand Research Network, Szeged, Hungary
- Doctoral School in Biology, University of Szeged, Szeged, Hungary
| | - Balázs Kardos
- Department of Immunology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Debrecen, Debrecen, Hungary
| | - Attila Bácsi
- Department of Immunology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Debrecen, Debrecen, Hungary
- ELKH-DE Allergology Research Group, Debrecen, Hungary
| | - Anett Mázló
- Department of Immunology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Debrecen, Debrecen, Hungary
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2
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Twarowski B, Herbet M. Inflammatory Processes in Alzheimer's Disease-Pathomechanism, Diagnosis and Treatment: A Review. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:6518. [PMID: 37047492 PMCID: PMC10095343 DOI: 10.3390/ijms24076518] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/23/2023] [Revised: 03/27/2023] [Accepted: 03/29/2023] [Indexed: 04/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Alzheimer's disease is one of the most commonly diagnosed cases of senile dementia in the world. It is an incurable process, most often leading to death. This disease is multifactorial, and one factor of this is inflammation. Numerous mediators secreted by inflammatory cells can cause neuronal degeneration. Neuritis may coexist with other mechanisms of Alzheimer's disease, contributing to disease progression, and may also directly underlie AD. Although much has been established about the inflammatory processes in the pathogenesis of AD, many aspects remain unexplained. The work is devoted in particular to the pathomechanism of inflammation and its role in diagnosis and treatment. An in-depth and detailed understanding of the pathomechanism of neuroinflammation in Alzheimer's disease may help in the development of diagnostic methods for early diagnosis and may contribute to the development of new therapeutic strategies for the disease.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Mariola Herbet
- Chair and Department of Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Medical University of Lublin, Jaczewskiego 8b Street, 20-090 Lublin, Poland
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3
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Blood Analytes as Biomarkers of Mechanisms Involved in Alzheimer’s Disease Progression. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:ijms232113289. [DOI: 10.3390/ijms232113289] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/02/2022] [Revised: 10/25/2022] [Accepted: 10/29/2022] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is the leading cause of dementia, but the pathogenetic factors are not yet well known, and the relationships between brain and systemic biochemical derangements and disease onset and progression are unclear. We aim to focus on blood biomarkers for an accurate prognosis of the disease. We used a dataset characterized by longitudinal findings collected over the past 10 years from 90 AD patients. The dataset included 277 observations (both clinical and biochemical ones, encompassing blood analytes encompassing routine profiles for different organs, together with immunoinflammatory and oxidative markers). Subjects were grouped into four severity classes according to the Clinical Dementia Rating (CDR) Scale: mild (CDR = 0.5 and CDR = 1), moderate (CDR = 2), severe (CDR = 3) and very severe (CDR = 4 and CDR = 5). Statistical models were used for the identification of potential blood markers of AD progression. Moreover, we employed the Pathfinder tool of the Reactome database to investigate the biological pathways in which the analytes of interest could be involved. Statistical results reveal an inverse significant relation between four analytes (high-density cholesterol, total cholesterol, iron and ferritin) with AD severity. In addition, the Reactome database suggests that such analytes could be involved in pathways that are altered in AD progression. Indeed, the identified blood markers include molecules that reflect the heterogeneous pathogenetic mechanisms of AD. The combination of such blood analytes might be an early indicator of AD progression and constitute useful therapeutic targets.
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Xie Y, Jia Y, Li Z, Hu F. Scavenger receptor A in immunity and autoimmune diseases: Compelling evidence for targeted therapy. Expert Opin Ther Targets 2022; 26:461-477. [PMID: 35510370 DOI: 10.1080/14728222.2022.2072729] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/04/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Scavenger receptor A (SR-A) is reported to be involved in innate and adaptive immunity and in recent years, the soluble form of SR-A has also been identified. Intriguingly, SR-A displays double-edged sword features in different diseases. Moreover, targeted therapy on SR-A, including genetic modulation, small molecule inhibitor, inhibitory peptides, fucoidan, and blocking antibodies, provides potential strategies for treatment. Currently, therapeutics targeting SR-A are in preclinical studies and clinical trials, revealing great perspectives in future immunotherapy. AREAS COVERED Through searching PubMed (January 1979-March 2022) and clinicaltrials.gov, we review most of the research and clinical trials involving SR-A. This review briefly summarizes recent study advances on SR-A, with particular concern on its role in immunity and autoimmune diseases. EXPERT OPINION Given the emerging evidence of SR-A in immunity, its targeted therapy has been studied in various diseases, especially autoimmune diseases. However, many challenges still remain to be overcome, such as the double-sworded effects and the specific isoform targeting. For further clinical success of SR-A targeted therapy, the crystal structure illustration and the dual function discrimination of SR-A should be further investigated. Nevertheless, although challenging, targeting SR-A would be a potential effective strategy in the treatment of autoimmune diseases and other immune-related diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yang Xie
- Department of Rheumatology and Immunology, Peking University People's Hospital & Beijing Key Laboratory for Rheumatism Mechanism and Immune Diagnosis (BZ0135), Beijing, Peking, China
| | - Yuan Jia
- Department of Rheumatology and Immunology, Peking University People's Hospital & Beijing Key Laboratory for Rheumatism Mechanism and Immune Diagnosis (BZ0135), Beijing, Peking, China
| | - Zhanguo Li
- Department of Rheumatology and Immunology, Peking University People's Hospital & Beijing Key Laboratory for Rheumatism Mechanism and Immune Diagnosis (BZ0135), Beijing, Peking, China.,State Key Laboratory of Natural and Biomimetic Drugs, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Peking University, Beijing, Peking, China.,Peking-Tsinghua Center for Life Sciences, Peking University, Beijing, Peking, China
| | - Fanlei Hu
- Department of Rheumatology and Immunology, Peking University People's Hospital & Beijing Key Laboratory for Rheumatism Mechanism and Immune Diagnosis (BZ0135), Beijing, Peking, China.,State Key Laboratory of Natural and Biomimetic Drugs, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Peking University, Beijing, Peking, China.,Department of Integration of Chinese and Western Medicine, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Peking University, Beijing, Peking, China
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5
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Feng L, Li J, Zhang R. Current research status of blood biomarkers in Alzheimer's disease: Diagnosis and prognosis. Ageing Res Rev 2021; 72:101492. [PMID: 34673262 DOI: 10.1016/j.arr.2021.101492] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/11/2021] [Revised: 08/04/2021] [Accepted: 10/15/2021] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
Alzheimer's disease (AD), which mainly occurs in the elderly, is a neurodegenerative disease with a hidden onset, which leads to progressive cognitive and behavioral changes. The annually increasing prevalence rate and number of patients with AD exert great pressure on the society. No effective disease-modifying drug treatments are available; thus, there is no cure yet. The disease progression can only be delayed through early detection and drug assistance. Therefore, the importance of exploring associated biomarkers for the early diagnosis and prediction of the disease progress is highlighted. The National Institute on Aging- Alzheimer's Association (NIA-AA) proposed A/T/N diagnostic criteria in 2018, including Aβ42, p-tau, t-tau in cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), and positron emission tomography (PET). However, the invasiveness of lumbar puncture for CSF assessment and non-popularity of PET have prompted researchers to look for minimally invasive, easy to collect, and cost-effective biomarkers. Therefore, studies have largely focused on some novel molecules in the peripheral blood. This is an emerging research field, facing many obstacles and challenges while achieving some promising results.
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Ghosh P, Singh R, Ganeshpurkar A, Pokle AV, Singh RB, Singh SK, Kumar A. Cellular and molecular influencers of neuroinflammation in Alzheimer's disease: Recent concepts & roles. Neurochem Int 2021; 151:105212. [PMID: 34656693 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuint.2021.105212] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/26/2021] [Revised: 09/22/2021] [Accepted: 10/10/2021] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Abstract
Alzheimer's disease (AD), an extremely common neurodegenerative disorder of the older generation, is one of the leading causes of death globally. Besides the conventional hallmarks i.e. Amyloid-β (Aβ) plaques and neurofibrillary tangles (NFTs), neuroinflammation also serves as a major contributing factor in the pathogenesis of AD. There are mounting evidences to support the fundamental role of cellular (microglia, astrocytes, mast cells, and T-cells) and molecular (cytokines, chemokines, caspases, and complement proteins) influencers of neuroinflammation in producing/promoting neurodegeneration and dementia in AD. Genome-wide association studies (GWAS) have revealed the involvement of various single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) of genes related to neuroinflammation with the risk of developing AD. Modulating the release of the neuroinflammatory molecules and targeting their relevant mechanisms may have beneficial effects on the onset, progress and severity of the disease. Here, we review the distinct role of various mediators and modulators of neuroinflammation that impact the pathogenesis and progression of AD as well as incite further research efforts for the treatment of AD through a neuroinflammatory approach.
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Affiliation(s)
- Powsali Ghosh
- Pharmaceutical Chemistry Research Laboratory 1, Department of Pharmaceutical Engineering & Technology, Indian Institute of Technology (Banaras Hindu University), Varanasi, 221005, India
| | - Ravi Singh
- Pharmaceutical Chemistry Research Laboratory 1, Department of Pharmaceutical Engineering & Technology, Indian Institute of Technology (Banaras Hindu University), Varanasi, 221005, India
| | - Ankit Ganeshpurkar
- Pharmaceutical Chemistry Research Laboratory 1, Department of Pharmaceutical Engineering & Technology, Indian Institute of Technology (Banaras Hindu University), Varanasi, 221005, India
| | - Ankit Vyankatrao Pokle
- Pharmaceutical Chemistry Research Laboratory 1, Department of Pharmaceutical Engineering & Technology, Indian Institute of Technology (Banaras Hindu University), Varanasi, 221005, India
| | - Ravi Bhushan Singh
- Institute of Pharmacy Harischandra PG College, Bawanbigha, Varanasi, India
| | - Sushil Kumar Singh
- Pharmaceutical Chemistry Research Laboratory 1, Department of Pharmaceutical Engineering & Technology, Indian Institute of Technology (Banaras Hindu University), Varanasi, 221005, India
| | - Ashok Kumar
- Pharmaceutical Chemistry Research Laboratory 1, Department of Pharmaceutical Engineering & Technology, Indian Institute of Technology (Banaras Hindu University), Varanasi, 221005, India.
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Spitzer P, Walter M, Göth C, Oberstein TJ, Linning P, Knölker HJ, Kornhuber J, Maler JM. Pharmacological Inhibition of Amyloidogenic APP Processing and Knock-Down of APP in Primary Human Macrophages Impairs the Secretion of Cytokines. Front Immunol 2020; 11:1967. [PMID: 33013850 PMCID: PMC7494750 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2020.01967] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/05/2020] [Accepted: 07/21/2020] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
It has been previously shown that the amyloid precursor protein (APP) support the innate immune defense as an immune receptor. Amyloid β (Aβ) peptides seem to have properties of an antimicrobial peptide and can act as opsonines. In APP-deficient mouse models, a reduced secretion of cytokines has been observed. Still, it is unclear whether this can be attributed to the lack of APP or to the missing secretion of Aβ peptides. We inhibited the secretion of Aβ peptides in primary human monocyte derived macrophages with the γ-secretase inhibitor N-[N-(3,5-Difluorophenacetyl)-L-alanyl]-S-phenylglycine-t-butyl-ester (DAPT) or the β-secretase inhibitor GL-189. Alternatively, we knocked down APP by transfection with siRNA. We measured tumor necrosis factor α (TNFα), interleukin 6 (IL-6) and interleukin (IL-10) by enzyme linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) and evaluated the phagocytotic activity by flow cytometry. We observed reduced concentrations of TNFα and IL-6 in the media of APPk/d macrophages and after inhibition of the β-, or γ-secretase, especially after additional immunological activation with lipopolysaccharide (LPS). Secretion of IL-10 was increased after pharmacological inhibition of APP processing when the macrophages were not immunologically activated but was decreased during LPS-induced inflammation in APPk/d macrophages. No changes of the phagocytotic activity were observed. We conclude that macrophage APP and Aβ peptides support the initiation of an immune response and are involved in the regulation of TNFα, IL-6, and IL-10 secretion by human monocyte-derived macrophages.
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Affiliation(s)
- Philipp Spitzer
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Friedrich-Alexander-Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg, University Hospital Erlangen, Erlangen, Germany
| | - Matthias Walter
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Friedrich-Alexander-Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg, University Hospital Erlangen, Erlangen, Germany
| | - Caroline Göth
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Friedrich-Alexander-Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg, University Hospital Erlangen, Erlangen, Germany
| | - Timo Jan Oberstein
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Friedrich-Alexander-Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg, University Hospital Erlangen, Erlangen, Germany
| | - Philipp Linning
- Faculty of Chemistry, Technische Universität Dresden, Dresden, Germany
| | | | - Johannes Kornhuber
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Friedrich-Alexander-Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg, University Hospital Erlangen, Erlangen, Germany
| | - Juan Manuel Maler
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Friedrich-Alexander-Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg, University Hospital Erlangen, Erlangen, Germany
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8
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Quan Q, Li X, Feng J, Hou J, Li M, Zhang B. Ginsenoside Rg1 reduces β‑amyloid levels by inhibiting CDΚ5‑induced PPARγ phosphorylation in a neuron model of Alzheimer's disease. Mol Med Rep 2020; 22:3277-3288. [PMID: 32945455 PMCID: PMC7453505 DOI: 10.3892/mmr.2020.11424] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/19/2020] [Accepted: 07/16/2020] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
The accumulation of β-amyloid peptides (Aβ) in the brain is a hallmark of Alzheimer's disease (AD). Studies have indicated that ginsenoside Rg1, a primary component of ginseng (Panax ginseng), reduces brain Aβ levels in an AD model through peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ (PPARγ), thereby regulating the expression of insulin-degrading enzyme (Ide) and β-amyloid cleavage enzyme 1 (Bace1), which are PPARγ target genes. However, the effects of ginsenoside Rg1 on PPARγ remain unclear. Since cyclin-dependent kinase 5 (CDK5) mediates PPARγ phosphorylation in adipose tissue, this study aimed to investigate whether ginsenoside Rg1 regulates PPARγ target genes and reduces Aβ levels by inhibiting PPARγ phosphorylation through the CDK5 pathway. In the present study, a model of AD was established by treating primary cultured rat hippocampal neurons with Aβ1-42. The cells were pretreatment with ginsenoside Rg1 and roscovitine, a CDK5-inhibitor, prior to the treatment with Aβ1-42. Neuronal apoptosis was detected using TUNEL staining. PPARγ phosphorylation and protein expression levels of PPARγ, CDK5, IDE, BACE1, amyloid precursor protein (APP) and Aβ1-42 were measured by western blotting. The mRNA expression levels of PPARγ, CDK5, IDE, BACE1 and APP were assessed using reverse transcription-quantitative PCR. The results of the present study demonstrated that in an AD model induced by Aβ1-42, ginsenoside Rg1 significantly decreased CDK5 expression, inhibited PPARγ phosphorylation at serine 273, elevated IDE expression, downregulated BACE1 and APP expression, decreased Aβ1-42 levels and attenuated neuronal apoptosis. The CDK5 inhibitor, roscovitine, demonstrated similar effects. These results suggest that ginsenoside Rg1 has neuroprotective properties and has potential for use in the treatment of AD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qiankun Quan
- Department of Geriatrics, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an, Shaanxi 710004, P.R. China
| | - Xi Li
- Department of Geriatrics, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an, Shaanxi 710004, P.R. China
| | - Jianjun Feng
- Department of Geriatrics, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an, Shaanxi 710004, P.R. China
| | - Jixing Hou
- Department of Psychiatry, Xi'an Mental Health Center, Xi'an, Shaanxi 710061, P.R. China
| | - Ming Li
- Department of Geriatrics, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an, Shaanxi 710004, P.R. China
| | - Bingwei Zhang
- Department of Geriatrics, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an, Shaanxi 710004, P.R. China
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9
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Gehrke N, Schattenberg JM. Metabolic Inflammation-A Role for Hepatic Inflammatory Pathways as Drivers of Comorbidities in Nonalcoholic Fatty Liver Disease? Gastroenterology 2020; 158:1929-1947.e6. [PMID: 32068022 DOI: 10.1053/j.gastro.2020.02.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 103] [Impact Index Per Article: 25.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/16/2019] [Revised: 02/05/2020] [Accepted: 02/11/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) is a global and growing health concern. Emerging evidence points toward metabolic inflammation as a key process in the fatty liver that contributes to multiorgan morbidity. Key extrahepatic comorbidities that are influenced by NAFLD are type 2 diabetes, cardiovascular disease, and impaired neurocognitive function. Importantly, the presence of nonalcoholic steatohepatitis and advanced hepatic fibrosis increase the risk for systemic comorbidity in NAFLD. Although the precise nature of the crosstalk between the liver and other organs has not yet been fully elucidated, there is emerging evidence that metabolic inflammation-in part, emanating from the fatty liver-is the engine that drives cellular dysfunction, cell death, and deleterious remodeling within various body tissues. This review describes several inflammatory pathways and mediators that have been implicated as links between NAFLD and type 2 diabetes, cardiovascular disease, and neurocognitive decline.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nadine Gehrke
- Metabolic Liver Research Program, I. Department of Medicine, University Medical Center, Mainz, Germany.
| | - Jörn M Schattenberg
- Metabolic Liver Research Program, I. Department of Medicine, University Medical Center, Mainz, Germany
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Liu Q, Fang J, Chen P, Die Y, Wang J, Liu Z, Liu X. Chicoric acid improves neuron survival against inflammation by promoting mitochondrial function and energy metabolism. Food Funct 2019; 10:6157-6169. [PMID: 31501849 DOI: 10.1039/c9fo01417a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Chicoric acid (CA), a major nutraceutical component of a typical Mediterranean vegetable, chicory, possesses excellent antioxidant and anti-inflammatory bioactivities. This work aimed to elucidate the effects of CA on neuron survival against inflammation and the underlying molecular mechanisms. Results demonstrated that CA promoted SH-SY5Y cells' autophagic vesicle formation, up-regulated autophagic elongation phase related gene expressions, and inhibited apoptosis stimulated by microglial conditioned culture medium (MCM). In addition, CA significantly improved mitochondrial function and regulated redox homeostasis related signaling pathways such as MAPKs and PI3K/AKT. MCM with CA notably increased the expressions of PGC-1α, SIRT1 and enhanced the phosphorylation of AMPK, promoting energy metabolism. On the other hand, the underlying mechanisms of the intervention of CA in MCM-induced cell apoptosis were partly due to its direct protective effect on SH-SY5Y cells and inhibition of microglial inflammatory factor release. This establishes a theoretical foundation for neuro-nutrition intervention studies of natural functional food components, and provides new clues for developing health foods containing CA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qian Liu
- College of Food Science and Technology, Northwest University, Xi'an 710069, China
| | - Jie Fang
- College of Life Sciences, Northwest University, Xi'an 710069, China
| | - PanPan Chen
- College of Food Science and Technology, Northwest University, Xi'an 710069, China
| | - Yun Die
- College of Life Sciences, Northwest University, Xi'an 710069, China
| | - Jing Wang
- School of Food and Biological Engineering, Shaanxi University of Science & Technology, Xi'an 710021, China
| | - Zhigang Liu
- College of Food Science and Engineering, Northwest A&F University, Yangling 712100, China.
| | - Xuebo Liu
- College of Food Science and Engineering, Northwest A&F University, Yangling 712100, China.
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