Structural Violence in Health Care: Lived Experience of Street-Based Female Commercial Sex Workers in Kathmandu

Sharing Culture and Management of Sex Work Information on Mobile Phones by Female Sex Workers in Nepal: Implications for mHealth Practice and Research

Female sex workers (FSWs) in Nepal continue to be disproportionately at risk for Sexually Transmitted Infections (STIs), including HIV. Due to stigma related to sex work and HIV, FSWs keep their sex work information hidden, which poses a barrier to seeking health services. Emerging research indicates a high uptake of mobile phones among FSWs in Nepal. Mobile health (mHealth) interventions can provide health information and linkage to care. However, largely missing from the literature is FSWs' experience of managing the information about their involvement in sex work in a culture where sharing personal information and belongings is a part of the social norm, and maintaining privacy could have negative social repercussions. The current study aims to understand how FSWs perceive and manage privacy when they share their mobile phones. Using the Communication Privacy Management theory, we explore FSWs' perception of the threat to their privacy posed by mobile phones. We conducted 30 in-depth interviews among FSWs in Kathmandu, Nepal. Results showed that all participants owned mobile phones, and sharing devices was common. Mobile phones pose a considerable challenge in keeping sex work information private, and FSWs use various communication strategies to circumvent privacy threats. The findings highlight the mental and emotional burden FSWs face trying to conceal their private information in a sharing culture. The study discusses the importance of theorizing privacy in the cultural context of the Global South and the practical implications for developing mHealth interventions for this population.

Causes of preventable death among children of female sex worker mothers in low- and middle-income countries: A community knowledge approach investigation

Background

Female sex workers (FSW) in low- and middle-income countries (LMIC) are disproportionately vulnerable to poor health, social, and economic outcomes. The children of female sex workers (CFSW) experience health risks based on these challenging circumstances and the unique conditions to which they are exposed. Although country child mortality data exist, little is known about the causes of death among CFSW specifically, thereby severely limiting an effective public health response to the needs of this high-risk group of children.

Methods

The Community Knowledge Approach (CKA) was employed between January and October 2019 to survey a criterion sample of 1280 FSW participants across 24 cities in eight LMIC countries. Participants meeting pre-determined criteria provided detailed reports of deaths among the CFSW within their community of peers. Newborn deaths were gleaned from FSW maternal death reports where the infants also died following birth.

Results

Of the 668 child deaths reported, 589 were included in the analysis. Nutritional deficiencies comprised the leading cause of mortality accounting for 20.7% of deaths, followed closely by accidents (20.0%), particularly house fires, overdoses (19.4%), communicable diseases (18.5%), and homicides (9.8%). Other reported causes of death included neonatal conditions, respiratory illnesses, and suicides.

Conclusions

The causes of CFSW death in these eight countries are preventable with improved protections. Governments, intergovernmental organisations like the United Nations, nongovernmental stakeholder organisations (e.g. sex worker organisations), and funders can implement targeted policies and programmes to protect CFSW and assist vulnerable FSW who are pregnant and raising children. Further research is needed to identify effective child welfare safeguards for CFSW.

Maternal health and maternal health service utilization among female sex workers: A scoping review

BACKGROUND

High proportions of female sex workers (FSWs) become pregnant and have children. Many FSWs are at increased risk of maternal health complications due to factors such as poverty, violence, and healthcare barriers. Despite this, FSWs' maternal health and use of maternal health services (MHS) receive limited attention.

OBJECTIVES

The objectives of this scoping review are to (1) synthesize existing data on FSWs' maternal health and MHS utilization and (2) assess the state of peer-reviewed literature on FSWs' maternal health in regard to methodological approaches and reported outcomes.

ELIGIBILITY CRITERIA

Included articles were peer-reviewed, published in English, and reported empirical data on FSWs for outcomes related to antenatal care, pregnancy, and labor complications, postnatal and delivery care, and/or barriers to MHS.

SOURCES OF EVIDENCE

Article searches were conducted in PubMed, Web of Science, Global Health, Sociological Abstracts, Sociological Index, PsychInfo, and CINAHL.

CHARTING METHODS

Information extracted from eligible articles included publication year, study design, location, sample size, outcome measures, and findings. The "Three Delays" model was used to synthesize findings on barriers to MHS as relevant to phase I, II, or III delays.

RESULTS

Eighteen publications met the eligibility criteria. Studies were conducted in 11 countries and primarily reported quantitative data from cross-sectional surveys. The most frequently reported outcome was antenatal care utilization (n = 14), whereas few studies reported findings related to postnatal care and breastfeeding counseling (n = 2). Across publications, there was a substantial range in the proportion of FSWs who reported accessing different types of MHS.

CONCLUSION

Literature on FSWs' maternal health is limited and heterogenous. More research is needed that specifically focuses on measuring outcomes related to FSWs' maternal health and examines associated factors. Such work can inform future research directions and public health interventions for FSWs-a population of marginalized women whose maternal health has been overlooked in existing efforts.

Examination of Identity Negotiation, Sexual Health Behavior, and Healthcare-Seeking Behavior of Transgender Sex Workers in India

The current study, which expects to fill in the gap in research on transgender sex workers in India, examines the sexual identity negotiation, risk perception and condom compliance, sexual health screening and testing behavior, contextual barriers to healthcare seeking, and barriers to community mobilization among this population. The study was conducted in the red-light districts of Kolkata and rural subdivisions of West Bengal, and Eastern India. Transgender sex workers comprise 15% of the sex workers’ populace in India, yet they are an understudied and underserved group in the commercial sex sector. It is anticipated that the study will help to formulate future programmatic interventions that can cater more effectively to the health needs of Indian transgender commercial sex workers, contribute to the HIV/STI risk reduction among this group, and reduce barriers to attaining health.

Insecure Birth: A Qualitative Study of Everyday Violence During Pregnancy in Port au Prince, Haiti

INTRODUCTION

While the city offers economic opportunities for women in many countries, their safety and security remain vulnerable to urban violence, especially in poor areas. In Haiti, poor urban women may be subjected to multiple forms of physical, sexual, and structural violence leading to adverse birth outcomes. We explored some of the complexities of how pregnancy is experienced under the reality and threat of urban violence in Haiti.

METHODS

We examined data from focus group discussions with fourteen women who lived in severely disenfranchised neighborhoods in Port au Prince and who were pregnant or had recently delivered at the time of the study.

RESULTS

We report on three recurring themes that emerged from the discussion: (a) ways in which the threat or experience of violence affected women's ability to access maternal healthcare, (b) ways in which women altered their behavior to accommodate everyday violence, and (c) the extent to which violence was embedded in women's consensual and non-consensual sexual encounters with perpetrators. We found that Haitian women considered violence, labeled ensekirite (insecurity), to be an everyday threat in their lives and that they strategized ways to access maternal health care and other services while navigating ensekirite.

DISCUSSION

Pregnancy adds another layer of vulnerability that may necessitate further negotiations with the threat and presence of violence. The pervasiveness and impact of urban violence in women's daily lives needs to be better evaluated in maternal and newborn health research and programs.

Structural Violence and Health-Related Outcomes in Europe: A Descriptive Systematic Review

In recent years, there has been a revival of the term “structural violence (SV)” which was coined by Johan Galtung in the 1960s in the context of Peace Studies. “Structural violence” refers to social structures—economic, legal, political, religious, and cultural—that prevent individuals, groups and societies from reaching their full potential. In the European context, very few studies have investigated health and well-being using an SV perspective. Therefore, this paper sought to systematically and descriptively review studies that used an SV framework to examine health-related outcomes across European countries. The review included two studies each from Spain and France, one each from the UK, Ukraine and Russia, and another study including the three countries Sweden, Portugal and Germany. With the exception of one mixed-method study, the studies used a qualitative design. Furthermore, the eight studies in the review used different conceptualizations of SV, which indicates the complexity of using SV as a concept in public health in the European context. Future research that attempts to identify and standardize measures of SV is needed; the knowledge gained is hoped to inform appropriate interventions aiming to reduce the effects of SV on population health.

"Feeling Safe, Feeling Seen, Feeling Free": Combating stigma and creating culturally safe care for sex workers in Chicago

BACKGROUND

Previous studies have established that sex workers experience discrimination and stigma within healthcare settings, limiting their access and receipt of culturally safe care. These barriers impact sex workers' ability and desire to routinely engage with the healthcare system. Community empowerment interventions that are culturally safe offer an effective strategy to improve access to services and health outcomes for sex workers.

OBJECTIVES

This project was designed to inform the development of community empowerment interventions for sex workers by understanding their self-management, health promotion, and harm reduction needs.

METHODS

In-depth interviews (N = 21) were conducted with sex workers in Chicago. Transcripts of individual interviews were analyzed in Dedoose using rapid content analysis.

RESULTS

Participants had a mean age of 32.7 years; 45% identified as White, 20% as Black, 15% as Latinx, and 20% as multiple races; 80% identified as Queer. A total of 52% of participants identified as cisgender women, 33% as transgender or gender fluid, 10% as cisgender men, and 5% declined to answer. Themes of self-management practices, stigmatizing and culturally unsafe experiences with healthcare providers, and the prohibitive cost of healthcare emerged as consistent barriers to routinely accessing healthcare. Despite identifying patient-centered care as a desired healthcare model, many participants did not report receiving care that was respectful or culturally responsive. Themes also included developing strategies to identify sex worker-safe care providers, creating false self-narratives and health histories in order to safely access care, and creating self-care routines that serve as alternatives to primary care.

CONCLUSION

Our findings demonstrate how patient-centered care for sex-workers in Chicago might include holistic wellness exercises, accessible pay scales for services, and destigmatizing healthcare praxis. Focus on culturally safe healthcare provision presents needs beyond individualized, or even community-level, interventions. Ongoing provider training and inbuilt, systemic responsivity to patient needs and contexts is crucial to patient-centered care.

Lived Experiences of Unwed Single Mothers: Exploring the Relationship between Structural Violence and Agency in the Context of Chinese Reproductive Health Discourse

China's family planning policy prioritizes the state and has historically silenced the voices of women in their own reproductive discourse. Unwed single Chinese mothers are in particular penalized and remain invisible in the national reproductive health discourse that promotes childbirth only within the institution of marriage. Drawing on Giddens' theoretical framework of structure-agency, thirty in-depth interviews were conducted to understand the lived experiences of Chinese unwed single mothers. Specifically, this study explored the ways in which structural violence is communicatively enacted in the interactions within institutions such as police station, family planning office and health care system; and interpersonal relationships such as family and neighbors that silence the voices of the unwed single mothers. Further the study also explored the ways in which the women enact their agency to navigate these macro and micro level constrains and limitations. The findings revealed that the women's experience of structural violence is often a manifestation of the state-controlled sexuality discourse in the social institutions and interpersonal relationships, and highlighted the women's agency enactment through employing various communicative behaviors to manage these day-to-day struggles.

Embodied Belonging: In/exclusion, Health Care, and Well-Being in a World in Motion

In this introduction, we propose the notion of 'embodied belonging' as a fruitful analytical heuristic for scholars in medical and psychological anthropology. We envision this notion to help us gain a more nuanced understanding of the entanglements of the political, social, and affective dimensions of belonging and their effects on health, illness, and healing. A focus on embodied belonging, we argue, reveals how displacement, exclusion, and marginalization cause existential and health-related ruptures in people's lives and bodies, and how affected people, in the struggle for re/emplacement and re/integration, may regain health and sustain their well-being. Covering a variety of regional contexts (Germany/Vietnam, Norway, the UK, Japan), the contributions to this special issue examine how embodied non/belonging is experienced, re/imagined, negotiated, practiced, disrupted, contested, and achieved (or not) by their protagonists, who are excluded and marginalized in diverse ways. Each article highlights the intricate trajectories of how dynamics of non/belonging inscribe themselves in human bodies. They also reveal how belonging can be utilized and drawn on as a forceful means and resource of social resilience, if not (self-)therapy and healing.

Racism in European Health Care: Structural Violence and Beyond

Research shows how racism can negatively affect access to health care and treatment. However, limited theoretical research exists on conceptualizing racism in health care. In this article, we use structural violence as a theoretical tool to understand how racism as an institutionalized social structure is enacted in subtle ways and how the "violence" built into forms of social organization is rendered invisible through repetition and routinization. We draw on interviews with health care users from three European countries, namely, Sweden, Germany, and Portugal to demonstrate how two interrelated processes of unequal access to resources and inequalities in power can lead to the silencing of suffering and erosion of dignity, respectively. The strength of this article lies in illuminating the mechanisms of subtle racism that damages individuals and leads to loss of trust in health care. It is imperative to address these issues to ensure a responsive and equal health care for all users.

Insights from birthing experiences of fistula survivors in North-central Nigeria: Interplay of structural violence

Obstetric Fistula is an abnormal opening between the vagina and rectum resulting from prolonged and obstructed labour. Studies indicate that delays in accessing maternal care and home birth contribute to the development of fistula. Survivors are usually women of low socioeconomic status residing in rural locations. This study explores the birthing experiences of 15 fistula survivors through a narrative inquiry approach at a repair centre in North-central Nigeria. Using structural violence as a lens, it describes the role of social, political and health systems in the inequitable access to care for women. For women opting for home births, preference for home delivery was mainly due to lack of finances, poor health systems and cultural practices. Rural location inhibited access as women seeking facility delivery faced transfer delays to referral centres when complications developed. Inequitable maternal health services in rural locations in Nigeria are inherently linked to access to health care, and these contribute to the increased incidence of fistulae. Structural intervention is a health policy priority to address poor health systems and achieve universal health coverage to address maternal health issues in Nigeria.

Female Sex Workers' Experiences of Violence and Substance Use on the Haitian, Dominican Republic Border

Background

Female sex workers (FSW) are socially and economically marginalized, and this vulnerability can be exacerbated when they hold the intersectional identity of also being an immigrant, such as in the case of Haitian FSWs in the Dominican Republic.

Objective

Considering that half of migratory young women and girls relocating across the Latin American and Caribbean region do so without their families, increasing the likelihood of experiencing abuses, our primary objective was to test the hypothesis that Haitian FSWs in the Dominican Republic have higher odds of being physically abused by sexual partners compared to Haitian FSWs in Haiti.

Methods

We conducted bivariate analyses and multivariate analyses on 2014 Hispaniola Sex Workers Study (N = 232).

Findings

Approximately 80% of Haitian FSWs in the Dominican Republic reported experiencing violence by a regular partner (80.3%), compared with 60.0% of Haitian FSWs in Haiti (χ2 = 11.34, p < 0.001). Controlling for socio-demographics, substance use, childhood abuse, and sexual behaviors, Haitian FSWs in Haiti maintained lower odds of experiencing violence by a regular partner (OR:0.37, p < 0.01) and higher odds of experiencing violence from a coworker (OR:6.38, p < 0.001) compared to FSWs in the Dominican Republic. Using sex to avoid arrest is associated with higher odds of experiencing violence by a client and violence by a coworker (OR:2.18, p < 0.05; OR:3.74, p < 0.001; respectively). Accepting payment in the form of drugs/alcohol is associated with higher odds of experiencing physical violence by a regular partner but lower odds of experiencing violence by a client (OR:3.99, p < 0.05; OR:0.43, p < 0.05; respectively).

Conclusions

Assuming health is a human right, then practitioners and scholars must actively collaborate to fortify vulnerable populations against injurious structural and sociocultural forces examining the intersectionality and compound effects of multiple stigmatized identities, in this study being an FSW and an immigrant, that moderate the potential positive effects of public health interventions.

Balance, Capacity, and the Contingencies of Everyday Life: Narrative Etiologies of Health Among Women in Street-Based Sex Work

There is an abundance of health research with women in street-based sex work, but few studies examine what health means and how it is practiced by participants. We embrace these tasks by exploring how a convenience sample of sex workers (n = 33) think about and enact health in their lives. Findings reveal pluralistic notions of health that include neoliberal, biomedical, and lay knowledge. Health is operationalized through clinic/hospital visits and self-care practices, which emerge as pragmatic behaviors and ways to resist or compensate for exclusionary treatment in health care systems. Participants also use symbols of biomedical authority to substantiate their lay interpretations of certain conditions, revealing complex forms of moral reasoning in their health etiologies. We conclude that doing health and constructing rich narratives about it are constituent elements of the women's everyday praxis and subjectivities in relation to the broader socioeconomic and political worlds of which they are a part.

Client-Perpetrated Violence Toward Female Sex Workers in Kathmandu

This qualitative study explores the experiences of client-perpetrated violence toward female sex workers in Kathmandu, Nepal. Individual interviews were conducted with 30 female sex workers. Data were analyzed using qualitative coding methods and thematic development. Two main themes emerged. Contexts in which client-perpetrated violence corresponded with (a) conditions associated with exchange of services, and (b) alcohol use. The first theme involved five factors: negotiating condom use, number of clients, requesting payment, length of service time, and negotiating sex acts. Alcohol use by clients and/or sex workers exacerbated violence. Implications for practice and research are discussed.

"As Natural as the Air Around Us": On the Origin and Development of the Concept of Structural Violence in Health Research

This article examines the concept of "structural violence." Originating in the work of Johan Galtung in 1969 and popularized by Paul Farmer, structural violence is increasingly invoked in health literature. It is a complex concept - rich in its explanatory potential but vague in its operational definition and arguably limited in its theoretical precision. Its potential lies in the focus it gives to the deep structural roots of health inequities; in contrast to the more passive term "social determinants of health," structural violence explicitly identifies social, economic, and political systems as the causes of the causes of poor health. It is also evocative in its framing of health inequities as an act of violence. Yet the formulation of structure used in this literature is largely atheoretical and, by extension, apolitical. Development of the concept hinges on clarifying the precise aspects of structure it points to (perhaps through using the concept in conjunction with larger theoretical frameworks) as well as improving operational definitions to enable its use in quantitative social epidemiology. We argue that the concept of structural violence can provide a useful lens for understanding health inequities, but its full potential is only realized when combined with larger theoretical frameworks.

Neither Medicine Nor Health Care Staff Members Are Violent By Nature: Obstetric Violence From an Interactionist Perspective

This study sought to understand the meaning that women place on the health care practices carried out during labor. We used techniques from Grounded Theory such as coding, categorization, and constant comparison. A total of 18 interviews were conducted with 16 women who had given birth at least once in Colombia. Based on our results, we argue that obstetric violence is an expression of violence during the provision of health care, which occurs in a social environment favoring the development of power relationships between patients and health care staff. Its origin might lie in a health care system whose political and economic foundations encourage inequality on the basis of the patients' purchasing power. We conclude that rethinking and redefining the concept of obstetric violence is essential for understanding its nature and having an impact on it.

Prostitution Stigma and Its Effect on the Working Conditions, Personal Lives, and Health of Sex Workers

Researchers have shown that stigma is a fundamental determinant of behavior, well-being, and health for many marginalized groups, but sex workers are notably absent from their analyses. This article aims to fill the empirical research gap on sex workers by reviewing the mounting evidence of stigmatization attached to sex workers' occupation, often referred to as "prostitution" or "whore" stigma. We give special attention to its negative effect on the working conditions, personal lives, and health of sex workers. The article first draws attention to the problem of terminology related to the subject area and makes the case for consideration of prostitution stigmatization as a fundamental cause of social inequality. We then examined the sources of prostitution stigma at macro, meso, and micro levels. The third section focuses on tactics sex workers employ to manage, reframe, or resist occupational stigma. We conclude with a call for more comparative studies of stigma related to sex work to contribute to the general stigma literature, as well as social policy and law reform.

The Socio-Ecological Model Approach to Understanding Barriers and Facilitators to the Accessing of Health Services by Sex Workers: A Systematic Review

Inequities in accessing health care persist among sex workers. The purpose of the review is to understand the health-seeking behaviours of sex workers and their access to health care services with socio-ecological model. Of 3852 citations screened, 30 met the inclusion criteria for this review. The access that sex workers have to health services is a complex issue. A wide range of barriers and facilitators at multiple levels could influence sex workers' utilization of health care services, such as health or service information, stigma, social support, quality of health care, available, accessible and affordable services, healthcare policy. Health services or future intervention studies should take into account the facilitators and barriers identified in this review to improve the health services utilization and health of sex workers, as part of the effort to protect the right of humans to health.