Depression Diagnosis Modeling With Advanced Computational Methods: Frequency-Domain eMVAR and Deep Learning

Opportunities and Challenges for Clinical Practice in Detecting Depression Using EEG and Machine Learning

Major depressive disorder (MDD) is associated with substantial morbidity and mortality, yet its diagnosis and treatment rates remain low due to its diverse and often overlapping clinical manifestations. In this context, electroencephalography (EEG) has gained attention as a potential objective tool for diagnosing depression. This study aimed to evaluate the effectiveness of EEG in identifying MDD by analyzing 140 EEG recordings from patients diagnosed with depression and healthy volunteers. Using various machine learning (ML) classification models, we achieved up to 80% accuracy in distinguishing individuals with MDD from healthy controls. Despite its promise, this approach has limitations. The variability in the clinical and biological presentations of depression, as well as patient-specific confounding factors, must be carefully considered when integrating ML technologies into clinical practice. Nevertheless, our findings suggest that an EEG-based ML model holds potential as a diagnostic aid for MDD, paving the way for further refinement and clinical application.

Multivariate Modelling and Prediction of High-Frequency Sensor-Based Cerebral Physiologic Signals: Narrative Review of Machine Learning Methodologies

Monitoring cerebral oxygenation and metabolism, using a combination of invasive and non-invasive sensors, is vital due to frequent disruptions in hemodynamic regulation across various diseases. These sensors generate continuous high-frequency data streams, including intracranial pressure (ICP) and cerebral perfusion pressure (CPP), providing real-time insights into cerebral function. Analyzing these signals is crucial for understanding complex brain processes, identifying subtle patterns, and detecting anomalies. Computational models play an essential role in linking sensor-derived signals to the underlying physiological state of the brain. Multivariate machine learning models have proven particularly effective in this domain, capturing intricate relationships among multiple variables simultaneously and enabling the accurate modeling of cerebral physiologic signals. These models facilitate the development of advanced diagnostic and prognostic tools, promote patient-specific interventions, and improve therapeutic outcomes. Additionally, machine learning models offer great flexibility, allowing different models to be combined synergistically to address complex challenges in sensor-based data analysis. Ensemble learning techniques, which aggregate predictions from diverse models, further enhance predictive accuracy and robustness. This review explores the use of multivariate machine learning models in cerebral physiology as a whole, with an emphasis on sensor-derived signals related to hemodynamics, cerebral oxygenation, metabolism, and other modalities such as electroencephalography (EEG) and functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) where applicable. It will detail the operational principles, mathematical foundations, and clinical implications of these models, providing a deeper understanding of their significance in monitoring cerebral function.

A comprehensive review for machine learning on neuroimaging in obsessive-compulsive disorder

Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) is a common mental disease, which can exist as a separate disease or become one of the symptoms of other mental diseases. With the development of society, statistically, the incidence rate of obsessive-compulsive disorder has been increasing year by year. At present, in the diagnosis and treatment of OCD, The clinical performance of patients measured by scales is no longer the only quantitative indicator. Clinical workers and researchers are committed to using neuroimaging to explore the relationship between changes in patient neurological function and obsessive-compulsive disorder. Through machine learning and artificial learning, medical information in neuroimaging can be better displayed. In this article, we discuss recent advancements in artificial intelligence related to neuroimaging in the context of Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder.

EEG-based classification of individuals with neuropsychiatric disorders using deep neural networks: A systematic review of current status and future directions

The use of deep neural networks for electroencephalogram (EEG) classification has rapidly progressed and gained popularity in recent years, but automatic feature extraction from EEG signals remains a challenging task. The classification of neuropsychiatric disorders demands the extraction of neuro-markers for use in automated EEG classification. Numerous advanced deep learning algorithms can be used for this purpose. In this article, we present a comprehensive review of the main factors and parameters that affect the performance of deep neural networks in classifying different neuropsychiatric disorders using EEG signals. We also analyze the EEG features used for improving classification performance. Our analysis includes 82 scientific journal papers that applied deep neural networks for subject-wise classification based on EEG signals. We extracted information on the EEG dataset and types of disorders, deep neural network structures, performance, and hyperparameters. The results show that most studies have focused on clinical classification, achieving an average accuracy of 91.83 ± 7.34, with convolutional neural networks (CNNs) being the most frequently used network architecture and resting-state EEG signals being the most commonly used data type. Additionally, the review reveals that depression (N = 18), Alzheimer's (N = 11), and schizophrenia (N = 11) were studied more frequently than other types of neuropsychiatric disorders. Our review provides insight into the performance of deep neural networks in EEG classification and highlights the importance of EEG feature extraction in improving classification accuracy. By identifying the main factors and parameters that affect deep neural network performance in EEG classification, our review can guide future research in this area. We hope that our findings will encourage further exploration of deep learning methods for EEG classification and contribute to the development of more accurate and effective methods for diagnosing and monitoring neuropsychiatric disorders using EEG signals.

Electroencephalography-Based Depression Detection Using Multiple Machine Learning Techniques

The growth of biomedical engineering has made depression diagnosis via electroencephalography (EEG) a trendy issue. The two significant challenges to this application are EEG signals' complexity and non-stationarity. Additionally, the effects caused by individual variances may hamper the generalization of detection systems. Given the association between EEG signals and particular demographics, such as gender and age, and the influences of these demographic characteristics on the incidence of depression, it would be preferable to include demographic factors during EEG modeling and depression detection. The main objective of this work is to develop an algorithm that can recognize depression patterns by studying EEG data. Following a multiband analysis of such signals, machine learning and deep learning techniques were used to detect depression patients automatically. EEG signal data are collected from the multi-modal open dataset MODMA and employed in studying mental diseases. The EEG dataset contains information from a traditional 128-electrode elastic cap and a cutting-edge wearable 3-electrode EEG collector for widespread applications. In this project, resting EEG readings of 128 channels are considered. According to CNN, training with 25 epoch iterations had a 97% accuracy rate. The patient's status has to be divided into two basic categories: major depressive disorder (MDD) and healthy control. Additional MDD include the following six classes: obsessive-compulsive disorders, addiction disorders, conditions brought on by trauma and stress, mood disorders, schizophrenia, and the anxiety disorders discussed in this paper are a few examples of mental illnesses. According to the study, a natural combination of EEG signals and demographic data is promising for the diagnosis of depression.

Landscape and future directions of machine learning applications in closed-loop brain stimulation

Brain stimulation (BStim) encompasses multiple modalities (e.g., deep brain stimulation, responsive neurostimulation) that utilize electrodes implanted in deep brain structures to treat neurological disorders. Currently, BStim is primarily used to treat movement disorders such as Parkinson's, though indications are expanding to include neuropsychiatric disorders like depression and schizophrenia. Traditional BStim systems are "open-loop" and deliver constant electrical stimulation based on manually-determined parameters. Advancements in BStim have enabled development of "closed-loop" systems that analyze neural biomarkers (e.g., local field potentials in the sub-thalamic nucleus) and adjust electrical modulation in a dynamic, patient-specific, and energy efficient manner. These closed-loop systems enable real-time, context-specific stimulation adjustment to reduce symptom burden. Machine learning (ML) has emerged as a vital component in designing these closed-loop systems as ML models can predict / identify presence of disease symptoms based on neural activity and adaptively learn to modulate stimulation. We queried the US National Library of Medicine PubMed database to understand the role of ML in developing closed-loop BStim systems to treat epilepsy, movement disorders, and neuropsychiatric disorders. Both neural and non-neural network ML algorithms have successfully been leveraged to create closed-loop systems that perform comparably to open-loop systems. For disorders in which the underlying neural pathophysiology is relatively well understood (e.g., Parkinson's, essential tremor), most work has involved refining ML models that can classify neural signals as aberrant or normal. The same is seen for epilepsy, where most current research has focused on identifying optimal ML model design and integrating closed-loop systems into existing devices. For neuropsychiatric disorders, where the underlying pathologic neural circuitry is still being investigated, research is focused on identifying biomarkers (e.g., local field potentials from brain nuclei) that ML models can use to identify onset of symptoms and stratify severity of disease.

EEG diagnosis of depression based on multi-channel data fusion and clipping augmentation and convolutional neural network

Depression is an undetectable mental disease. Most of the patients with depressive symptoms do not know that they are suffering from depression. Since the novel Coronavirus pandemic 2019, the number of patients with depression has increased rapidly. There are two kinds of traditional depression diagnosis. One is that professional psychiatrists make diagnosis results for patients, but it is not conducive to large-scale depression detection. Another is to use electroencephalography (EEG) to record neuronal activity. Then, the features of the EEG are extracted using manual or traditional machine learning methods to diagnose the state and type of depression. Although this method achieves good results, it does not fully utilize the multi-channel information of EEG. Aiming at this problem, an EEG diagnosis method for depression based on multi-channel data fusion cropping enhancement and convolutional neural network is proposed. First, the multi-channel EEG data are transformed into 2D images after multi-channel fusion (MCF) and multi-scale clipping (MSC) augmentation. Second, it is trained by a multi-channel convolutional neural network (MCNN). Finally, the trained model is loaded into the detection device to classify the input EEG signals. The experimental results show that the combination of MCF and MSC can make full use of the information contained in the single sensor records, and significantly improve the classification accuracy and clustering effect of depression diagnosis. The method has the advantages of low complexity and good robustness in signal processing and feature extraction, which is beneficial to the wide application of detection systems.

Machine learning approaches for diagnosing depression using EEG: A review

Depression has become one of the most crucial public health issues, threatening the quality of life of over 300 million people throughout the world. Nevertheless, the clinical diagnosis of depression is now still hampered by behavioral diagnostic methods. Due to the lack of objective laboratory diagnostic criteria, accurate identification and diagnosis of depression remained elusive. With the rise of computational psychiatry, a growing number of studies have combined resting-state electroencephalography with machine learning (ML) to alleviate diagnosis of depression in recent years. Despite the exciting results, these were worrisome of these studies. As a result, ML prediction models should be continuously improved to better screen and diagnose depression. Finally, this technique would be used for the diagnosis of other psychiatric disorders in the future.