1
|
Nguyen QL, Hees K, Hernandez Penna S, König F, Posch M, Bofill Roig M, Meyer EL, Freitag MM, Parke T, Otte M, Dauben HP, Mielke T, Spiertz C, Mesenbrink P, Gidh-Jain M, Pierre S, Morello S, Hofner B. Regulatory Issues of Platform Trials: Learnings from EU-PEARL. Clin Pharmacol Ther 2024; 116:52-63. [PMID: 38529786 DOI: 10.1002/cpt.3244] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/19/2023] [Accepted: 02/27/2024] [Indexed: 03/27/2024]
Abstract
Although platform trials have many benefits, the complexity of these designs may result not only in increased methodological but also regulatory and ethical challenges. These aspects were addressed as part of the IMI project EU Patient-Centric Clinical Trial Platforms (EU-PEARL). We reviewed the available guidelines on platform trials in the European Union and the United States. This is supported and complemented by feedback received from regulatory interactions with the European Medicines Agency and the US Food and Drug Administration. Throughout the project we collected the needs of all relevant stakeholders including ethics committees, regulators, and health technology assessment bodies through active dialog and dedicated stakeholder workshops. Furthermore, we focused on methodological aspects and where applicable identified the corresponding guidance. Learnings from the guideline review, regulatory interactions, and workshops are provided. Based on these, a master protocol template was developed. Issues that still need harmonization or clarification in guidelines or where further methodological research is needed are also presented. These include questions around clinical trial submissions in Europe, the need for multiplicity control across the whole master protocol, the use of non-concurrent controls, and the impact of different randomization schemes. Master protocols are an efficient and patient-centered clinical trial design that can expedite drug development. However, they can also introduce additional operational and regulatory complexities. It is important to understand the different requirements of stakeholders upfront and address them in the trial. While relevant guidance is increasing, early dialog with relevant stakeholders can help to further support such designs.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Quynh Lan Nguyen
- Section Data Science and Methods, Paul-Ehrlich-Institut, Langen, Germany
- Department of Medical Informatics, Biometry and Epidemiology, Friedrich-Alexander-Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg, Erlangen, Germany
| | - Katharina Hees
- Section Data Science and Methods, Paul-Ehrlich-Institut, Langen, Germany
| | | | - Franz König
- Institute for Medical Statistics, Center for Medical Data Science, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Martin Posch
- Institute for Medical Statistics, Center for Medical Data Science, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Marta Bofill Roig
- Institute for Medical Statistics, Center for Medical Data Science, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Elias Laurin Meyer
- Institute for Medical Statistics, Center for Medical Data Science, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
- Berry Consultants, Vienna, Austria
| | | | | | | | | | - Tobias Mielke
- Statistics and Decision Sciences, Janssen-Cilag GmbH, Neuss, Germany
| | | | - Peter Mesenbrink
- Analytics, Development, Novartis Pharmaceuticals Corporation, East Hanover, New Jersey, USA
| | | | | | | | - Benjamin Hofner
- Section Data Science and Methods, Paul-Ehrlich-Institut, Langen, Germany
- Department of Medical Informatics, Biometry and Epidemiology, Friedrich-Alexander-Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg, Erlangen, Germany
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Burnett T, König F, Jaki T. Adding experimental treatment arms to multi-arm multi-stage platform trials in progress. Stat Med 2024. [PMID: 38852991 DOI: 10.1002/sim.10090] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/09/2022] [Revised: 01/16/2024] [Accepted: 04/15/2024] [Indexed: 06/11/2024]
Abstract
Multi-arm multi-stage (MAMS) platform trials efficiently compare several treatments with a common control arm. Crucially MAMS designs allow for adjustment for multiplicity if required. If for example, the active treatment arms in a clinical trial relate to different dose levels or different routes of administration of a drug, the strict control of the family-wise error rate (FWER) is paramount. Suppose a further treatment becomes available, it is desirable to add this to the trial already in progress; to access both the practical and statistical benefits of the MAMS design. In any setting where control of the error rate is required, we must add corresponding hypotheses without compromising the validity of the testing procedure.To strongly control the FWER, MAMS designs use pre-planned decision rules that determine the recruitment of the next stage of the trial based on the available data. The addition of a treatment arm presents an unplanned change to the design that we must account for in the testing procedure. We demonstrate the use of the conditional error approach to add hypotheses to any testing procedure that strongly controls the FWER. We use this framework to add treatments to a MAMS trial in progress. Simulations illustrate the possible characteristics of such procedures.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Thomas Burnett
- Department of Mathematical Sciences, University of Bath, Bath, UK
| | - Franz König
- Center for Medical Data Science, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Thomas Jaki
- MRC Biostatistics Unit, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
- Faculty of Computer Science and Data Science, University of Regensburg, Regensburg, Germany
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Robertson DS, Wason JMS, König F, Posch M, Jaki T. Online error rate control for platform trials. Stat Med 2023; 42:2475-2495. [PMID: 37005003 PMCID: PMC7614610 DOI: 10.1002/sim.9733] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/03/2021] [Revised: 01/20/2023] [Accepted: 03/18/2023] [Indexed: 04/04/2023]
Abstract
Platform trials evaluate multiple experimental treatments under a single master protocol, where new treatment arms are added to the trial over time. Given the multiple treatment comparisons, there is the potential for inflation of the overall type I error rate, which is complicated by the fact that the hypotheses are tested at different times and are not necessarily pre-specified. Online error rate control methodology provides a possible solution to the problem of multiplicity for platform trials where a relatively large number of hypotheses are expected to be tested over time. In the online multiple hypothesis testing framework, hypotheses are tested one-by-one over time, where at each time-step an analyst decides whether to reject the current null hypothesis without knowledge of future tests but based solely on past decisions. Methodology has recently been developed for online control of the false discovery rate as well as the familywise error rate (FWER). In this article, we describe how to apply online error rate control to the platform trial setting, present extensive simulation results, and give some recommendations for the use of this new methodology in practice. We show that the algorithms for online error rate control can have a substantially lower FWER than uncorrected testing, while still achieving noticeable gains in power when compared with the use of a Bonferroni correction. We also illustrate how online error rate control would have impacted a currently ongoing platform trial.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- David S. Robertson
- MRC Biostatistics Unit, School of Clinical MedicineUniversity of CambridgeCambridgeUK
| | - James M. S. Wason
- Population Health Sciences Institute, Faculty of Medical SciencesNewcastle UniversityNewcastle upon TyneUK
| | - Franz König
- Section of Medical StatisticsMedical University of ViennaViennaAustria
| | - Martin Posch
- Section of Medical StatisticsMedical University of ViennaViennaAustria
| | - Thomas Jaki
- MRC Biostatistics Unit, School of Clinical MedicineUniversity of CambridgeCambridgeUK
- Faculty of Informatics and Data Science, University of RegensburgRegensburgGermany
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Zehetmayer S, Posch M, Koenig F. Online control of the False Discovery Rate in group-sequential platform trials. Stat Methods Med Res 2022; 31:2470-2485. [PMID: 36189481 PMCID: PMC10130539 DOI: 10.1177/09622802221129051] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
When testing multiple hypotheses, a suitable error rate should be controlled even in exploratory trials. Conventional methods to control the False Discovery Rate assume that all p-values are available at the time point of test decision. In platform trials, however, treatment arms enter and leave the trial at different times during its conduct. Therefore, the actual number of treatments and hypothesis tests is not fixed in advance and hypotheses are not tested at once, but sequentially. Recently, for such a setting the concept of online control of the False Discovery Rate was introduced. We propose several heuristic variations of the LOND procedure (significance Levels based On Number of Discoveries) that incorporate interim analyses for platform trials, and study their online False Discovery Rate via simulations. To adjust for the interim looks spending functions are applied with O'Brien-Fleming or Pocock type group-sequential boundaries. The power depends on the prior distribution of effect sizes, for example, whether true alternatives are uniformly distributed over time or not. We consider the choice of design parameters for the LOND procedure to maximize the overall power and investigate the impact on the False Discovery Rate by including both concurrent and non-concurrent control data.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Sonja Zehetmayer
- Center for Medical Statistics, Informatics and Intelligent Systems, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Martin Posch
- Center for Medical Statistics, Informatics and Intelligent Systems, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Franz Koenig
- Center for Medical Statistics, Informatics and Intelligent Systems, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Meyer EL, Mesenbrink P, Dunger-Baldauf C, Glimm E, Li Y, König F. Decision rules for identifying combination therapies in open-entry, randomized controlled platform trials. Pharm Stat 2022; 21:671-690. [PMID: 35102685 PMCID: PMC9304586 DOI: 10.1002/pst.2194] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/19/2021] [Revised: 10/29/2021] [Accepted: 01/09/2022] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
Platform trials have become increasingly popular for drug development programs, attracting interest from statisticians, clinicians and regulatory agencies. Many statistical questions related to designing platform trials—such as the impact of decision rules, sharing of information across cohorts, and allocation ratios on operating characteristics and error rates—remain unanswered. In many platform trials, the definition of error rates is not straightforward as classical error rate concepts are not applicable. For an open‐entry, exploratory platform trial design comparing combination therapies to the respective monotherapies and standard‐of‐care, we define a set of error rates and operating characteristics and then use these to compare a set of design parameters under a range of simulation assumptions. When setting up the simulations, we aimed for realistic trial trajectories, such that for example, a priori we do not know the exact number of treatments that will be included over time in a specific simulation run as this follows a stochastic mechanism. Our results indicate that the method of data sharing, exact specification of decision rules and a priori assumptions regarding the treatment efficacy all strongly contribute to the operating characteristics of the platform trial. Furthermore, different operating characteristics might be of importance to different stakeholders. Together with the potential flexibility and complexity of a platform trial, which also impact the achieved operating characteristics via, for example, the degree of efficiency of data sharing this implies that utmost care needs to be given to evaluation of different assumptions and design parameters at the design stage.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Elias Laurin Meyer
- Center for Medical Statistics, Informatics, and Intelligent Systems, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Peter Mesenbrink
- Analytics Department, Novartis Pharmaceuticals Corporation, East Hanover, New Jersey, USA
| | | | - Ekkehard Glimm
- Analytics Department, Novartis Pharma AG, Basel, Switzerland.,Institute of Biometry and Medical Informatics, University of Magdeburg, Magdeburg, Germany
| | - Yuhan Li
- Analytics Department, Novartis Pharmaceuticals Corporation, East Hanover, New Jersey, USA
| | - Franz König
- Center for Medical Statistics, Informatics, and Intelligent Systems, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | | |
Collapse
|
6
|
Parker RA, Weir CJ. Multiple secondary outcome analyses: precise interpretation is important. Trials 2022; 23:27. [PMID: 35012627 PMCID: PMC8744058 DOI: 10.1186/s13063-021-05975-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/27/2021] [Accepted: 12/21/2021] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Analysis of multiple secondary outcomes in a clinical trial leads to an increased probability of at least one false significant result among all secondary outcomes studied. In this paper, we question the notion that that if no multiplicity adjustment has been applied to multiple secondary outcome analyses in a clinical trial, then they must necessarily be regarded as exploratory. Instead, we argue that if individual secondary outcome results are interpreted carefully and precisely, there is no need to downgrade our interpretation to exploratory. This is because the probability of a false significant result for each comparison, the per-comparison wise error rate, does not increase with multiple testing. Strong effects on secondary outcomes should always be taken seriously and must not be dismissed purely on the basis of multiplicity concerns.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Richard A Parker
- Edinburgh Clinical Trials Unit, Usher Institute, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK.
| | - Christopher J Weir
- Edinburgh Clinical Trials Unit, Usher Institute, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Molloy SF, White IR, Nunn AJ, Hayes R, Wang D, Harrison TS. Multiplicity adjustments in parallel-group multi-arm trials sharing a control group: Clear guidance is needed. Contemp Clin Trials 2021; 113:106656. [PMID: 34906747 PMCID: PMC8844584 DOI: 10.1016/j.cct.2021.106656] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/08/2021] [Revised: 12/03/2021] [Accepted: 12/08/2021] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
Abstract
Multi-arm, parallel-group clinical trials are an efficient way of testing several new treatments, treatment regimens or doses. However, guidance on the requirement for statistical adjustment to control for multiple comparisons (type I error) using a shared control group is unclear. We argue, based on current evidence, that adjustment is not always necessary in such situations. We propose that adjustment should not be a requirement in multi-arm, parallel-group trials testing distinct treatments and sharing a control group, and we call for clearer guidance from stakeholders, such as regulators and scientific journals, on the appropriate settings for adjustment of multiplicity.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Síle F Molloy
- Institute for Infection and Immunity, St George's University of London, London, UK.
| | - Ian R White
- MRC Clinical Trials Unit at UCL, Institute of Clinical Trials and Methodology, University College London, London, UK
| | - Andrew J Nunn
- MRC Clinical Trials Unit at UCL, Institute of Clinical Trials and Methodology, University College London, London, UK
| | - Richard Hayes
- Department of Infectious Disease Epidemiology, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, London, UK
| | - Duolao Wang
- Global Health Trials Unit, Department of Clinical Sciences, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Liverpool, UK
| | - Thomas S Harrison
- Institute for Infection and Immunity, St George's University of London, London, UK
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Ren Y, Li X, Chen C. Statistical considerations of phase 3 umbrella trials allowing adding one treatment arm mid-trial. Contemp Clin Trials 2021; 109:106538. [PMID: 34384890 DOI: 10.1016/j.cct.2021.106538] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2021] [Revised: 08/02/2021] [Accepted: 08/06/2021] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
Master protocols, in particular umbrella trials and platform trials, when evaluating multiple experimental treatments with a common control, could save patient resource, increase trial efficiency, and reduce drug development cost. Compared to the phase 3 platform trials that allow unlimited number of experimental arms to be added, it is more practical for individual companies to evaluate two experimental arms with a common control in an umbrella trial and allow the second experimental arm to be added at a later time. There have been limited research done in this type of trials in terms of statistical properties and guidance. In this article, we present statistical considerations of a phase 3 three-arm umbrella design including Type I error control and power, as well as the optimal allocation ratio. We intend to not only complement the existing literature, but more importantly to provide practical guidance to pave the way for its implementation by individual companies.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yixin Ren
- Biostatistics and Research Decision Sciences, Merck & Co., Inc., Kenilworth, NJ 07033, USA.
| | - Xiaoyun Li
- Biostatistics and Research Decision Sciences, Merck & Co., Inc., Kenilworth, NJ 07033, USA
| | - Cong Chen
- Biostatistics and Research Decision Sciences, Merck & Co., Inc., Kenilworth, NJ 07033, USA
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
Practical Considerations and Recommendations for Master Protocol Framework: Basket, Umbrella and Platform Trials. Ther Innov Regul Sci 2021; 55:1145-1154. [PMID: 34160785 PMCID: PMC8220876 DOI: 10.1007/s43441-021-00315-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2021] [Accepted: 06/07/2021] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
Master protocol, categorized as basket trial, umbrella trial or platform trial, is an innovative clinical trial framework that aims to expedite clinical drug development, enhance trial efficiency, and eventually bring medicines to patients faster. Despite a clear uptake on the advantages in the concepts and designs, master protocols are still yet to be widely used. Part of that may be due to the fact that the master protocol framework comes with the need for new statistical designs and considerations for analyses and operational challenges. In this article, we provide an overview of the master protocol framework, unify the definitions with some examples, review the statistical methods for the designs and analyses, and focus our discussions on some practical considerations and recommendations of master protocols to help practitioners better design and implement such studies.
Collapse
|
10
|
Sridhara R, Marchenko O, Jiang Q, Pazdur R, Posch M, Redman M, Tymofyeyev Y, Li X(N, Theoret M, Shen YL, Gwise T, Hess L, Coory M, Raven A, Kotani N, Roes K, Josephson F, Berry S, Simon R, Binkowitz B. Type I Error Considerations in Master Protocols With Common Control in Oncology Trials: Report of an American Statistical Association Biopharmaceutical Section Open Forum Discussion. Stat Biopharm Res 2021. [DOI: 10.1080/19466315.2021.1906743] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | - Martin Posch
- Medical Statistics at the Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Kit Roes
- Swedish Medical Products Agency (MPA), Uppsala, Sweden
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
11
|
Meyer EL, Mesenbrink P, Mielke T, Parke T, Evans D, König F. Systematic review of available software for multi-arm multi-stage and platform clinical trial design. Trials 2021; 22:183. [PMID: 33663579 PMCID: PMC7931508 DOI: 10.1186/s13063-021-05130-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/09/2020] [Accepted: 02/13/2021] [Indexed: 01/22/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND In recent years, the popularity of multi-arm multi-stage, seamless adaptive, and platform trials has increased. However, many design-related questions and questions regarding which operating characteristics should be evaluated to determine the potential performance of a specific trial design remain and are often further complicated by the complexity of such trial designs. METHODS A systematic search was conducted to review existing software for the design of platform trials, whereby multi-arm multi-stage trials were also included. The results of this search are reported both on the literature level and the software level, highlighting the software judged to be particularly useful. RESULTS In recent years, many highly specialized software packages targeting single design elements on platform studies have been released. Only a few of the developed software packages provide extensive design flexibility, at the cost of limited access due to being commercial or not being usable as out-of-the-box solutions. CONCLUSIONS We believe that both an open-source modular software similar to OCTOPUS and a collaborative effort will be necessary to create software that takes advantage of and investigates the impact of all the flexibility that platform trials potentially provide.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Elias Laurin Meyer
- Center for Medical Statistics, Informatics, and Intelligent Systems, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Peter Mesenbrink
- Novartis Pharmaceuticals Corporation, One Health Plaza, East Hanover, NJ, USA
| | | | | | | | - Franz König
- Center for Medical Statistics, Informatics, and Intelligent Systems, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria.
| |
Collapse
|
12
|
Posch M, König F. Are p-values Useful to Judge the Evidence Against the Null Hypotheses in Complex Clinical Trials? A Comment on “The Role of p-values in Judging the Strength of Evidence and Realistic Replication Expectations”. Stat Biopharm Res 2020. [DOI: 10.1080/19466315.2020.1847182] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Martin Posch
- Center for Medical Statistics, Informatics, and Intelligent Systems, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Franz König
- Center for Medical Statistics, Informatics, and Intelligent Systems, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| |
Collapse
|
13
|
Mütze T, Friede T. Data monitoring committees for clinical trials evaluating treatments of COVID-19. Contemp Clin Trials 2020; 98:106154. [PMID: 32961361 PMCID: PMC7833551 DOI: 10.1016/j.cct.2020.106154] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/13/2020] [Accepted: 09/15/2020] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
The first cases of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) were reported in December 2019 and the outbreak of SARS-CoV-2 was declared a pandemic in March 2020 by the World Health Organization. This sparked a plethora of investigations into diagnostics and vaccination for SARS-CoV-2, as well as treatments for COVID-19. Since COVID-19 is a severe disease associated with a high mortality, clinical trials in this disease should be monitored by a data monitoring committee (DMC), also known as data safety monitoring board (DSMB). DMCs in this indication face a number of challenges including fast recruitment requiring an unusually high frequency of safety reviews, more frequent use of complex designs and virtually no prior experience with the disease. In this paper, we provide a perspective on the work of DMCs for clinical trials of treatments for COVID-19. More specifically, we discuss organizational aspects of setting up and running DMCs for COVID-19 trials, in particular for trials with more complex designs such as platform trials or adaptive designs. Furthermore, statistical aspects of monitoring clinical trials of treatments for COVID-19 are considered. Some recommendations are made regarding the presentation of the data, stopping rules for safety monitoring and the use of external data. The proposed stopping boundaries are assessed in a simulation study motivated by clinical trials in COVID-19.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Tobias Mütze
- Statistical Methodology, Novartis Pharma AG, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Tim Friede
- Department of Medical Statistics, University Medical Center Göttingen, Göttingen, Germany; DZHK (German Center for Cardiovascular Research), partner site Göttingen, Göttingen, Germany.
| |
Collapse
|