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Dow CT. Warm, Sweetened Milk at the Twilight of Immunity - Alzheimer's Disease - Inflammaging, Insulin Resistance, M. paratuberculosis and Immunosenescence. Front Immunol 2021; 12:714179. [PMID: 34421917 PMCID: PMC8375433 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2021.714179] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2021] [Accepted: 07/09/2021] [Indexed: 01/22/2023] Open
Abstract
This article prosecutes a case against the zoonotic pathogen Mycobacterium avium ss. paratuberculosis (MAP) as a precipitant of Alzheimer’s disease (AD). Like the other major neurodegenerative diseases AD is, at its core, a proteinopathy. Aggregated extracellular amyloid protein plaques and intracellular tau protein tangles are the recognized protein pathologies of AD. Autophagy is the cellular housekeeping process that manages protein quality control and recycling, cellular metabolism, and pathogen elimination. Impaired autophagy and cerebral insulin resistance are invariant features of AD. With a backdrop of age-related low-grade inflammation (inflammaging) and heightened immune risk (immunosenescence), infection with MAP subverts glucose metabolism and further exhausts an already exhausted autophagic capacity. Increasingly, a variety of agents have been found to favorably impact AD; they are agents that promote autophagy and reduce insulin resistance. The potpourri of these therapeutic agents: mTOR inhibitors, SIRT1 activators and vaccines are seemingly random until one recognizes that all these agents also suppress intracellular mycobacterial infection. The zoonotic mycobacterial MAP causes a common fatal enteritis in ruminant animals. Humans are exposed to MAP from contaminated food products and from the environment. The enteritis in animals is called paratuberculosis or Johne’s disease; in humans, it is the putative cause of Crohn’s disease. Beyond Crohn’s, MAP is associated with an increasing number of inflammatory and autoimmune diseases: sarcoidosis, Blau syndrome, autoimmune diabetes, autoimmune thyroiditis, multiple sclerosis, and rheumatoid arthritis. Moreover, MAP has been associated with Parkinson’s disease. India is one county that has extensively studied the human bio-load of MAP; 30% of more than 28,000 tested individuals were found to harbor, or to have harbored, MAP. This article asserts an unfolding realization that MAP infection of humans 1) is widespread in its presence, 2) is wide-ranging in its zoonosis and 3) provides a plausible link connecting MAP to AD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Coad Thomas Dow
- McPherson Eye Research Institute, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, United States
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Rees WD, Lorenzo-Leal AC, Steiner TS, Bach H. Mycobacterium avium Subspecies paratuberculosis Infects and Replicates within Human Monocyte-Derived Dendritic Cells. Microorganisms 2020; 8:microorganisms8070994. [PMID: 32635236 PMCID: PMC7409171 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms8070994] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/11/2020] [Revised: 06/29/2020] [Accepted: 07/01/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Mycobacterium avium subspecies paratuberculosis (MAP), a member of the mycobacteriaceae family, causes Johne's disease in ruminants, which resembles Crohn's disease (CD) in humans. MAP was proposed to be one of the causes of human CD, but the evidence remains elusive. Macrophages were reported to be the only cell where MAP proliferates in ruminants and humans and is likely the major producer of TNFα-associated inflammation. However, whether human dendritic cells (DCs), another major antigen-presenting cell (APC), have the ability to harbor MAP and disseminate infection, remains unknown. METHODS Human monocyte-derived dendritic cells (moDCs) were infected with MAP and phagocytosis and intracellular survival were quantified by immunofluorescence (IF) and colony counts, respectively. MoDC cytokine expression was measured via ELISA and their activation state was measured via flow cytometry. RESULTS We showed that MAP can infect and replicate in human moDCs as means to evade the immune system for successful infection, through inhibition of the phago-lysosome fusion via the secretion of protein tyrosine phosphatase PtpA. This mechanism initially led to a state of tolerance in moDCs and then subsequently caused a pro-inflammatory response as infection persisted, characterized by the upregulation of IL-6 and TNFα, and downregulation of IL-10. Moreover, we showed that moDCs have the ability to phagocytose up to 18% of MAP, when exposed at a multiplicity of infection of 1:1. CONCLUSION Infection and subsequent proliferation of MAP within moDCs could provide a unique means for the dissemination of MAP to lymphoid tissue, while altering immune responses to facilitate the persistence of infection of host tissues in CD.
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Affiliation(s)
- William D. Rees
- Department of Medicine, Division of Infectious Diseases, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC V5Z3J5, Canada; (W.D.R.); (A.C.L.-L.)
- BC Children’s Hospital Research Institute, Vancouver, BC V6H3N1, Canada
| | - Ana C. Lorenzo-Leal
- Department of Medicine, Division of Infectious Diseases, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC V5Z3J5, Canada; (W.D.R.); (A.C.L.-L.)
- Chemical and Food Engineering Department, Universidad de las Americas Puebla, San Andres Cholula, Puebla 72810, Mexico
| | - Theodore S. Steiner
- Department of Medicine, Division of Infectious Diseases, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC V5Z3J5, Canada; (W.D.R.); (A.C.L.-L.)
- BC Children’s Hospital Research Institute, Vancouver, BC V6H3N1, Canada
- Correspondence: (T.S.S.); (H.B.)
| | - Horacio Bach
- Department of Medicine, Division of Infectious Diseases, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC V5Z3J5, Canada; (W.D.R.); (A.C.L.-L.)
- Correspondence: (T.S.S.); (H.B.)
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Liu H, Xiong X, Zhu T, Zhu Y, Peng Y, Zhu X, Wang J, Chen H, Chen Y, Guo A. Differential nitric oxide induced by Mycobacterium bovis and BCG leading to dendritic cells apoptosis in a caspase dependent manner. Microb Pathog 2020; 149:104303. [PMID: 32504845 DOI: 10.1016/j.micpath.2020.104303] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/03/2019] [Revised: 03/14/2020] [Accepted: 05/29/2020] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
Dendritic cells (DCs) are critical for both innate and adaptive immunity. Meanwhile, nitric oxide (NO) is a member of reactive nitrogen species (RNS) generally considered to play a key role in the bactericidal process in innate immunity against Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex infection. The present study therefore investigated the mechanism of NO production in murine DCs induced by Mycobacterium bovis (M.bovis) and its attenuated strain Bacillus Calmette-Guérin (BCG) infection. The expression of genes Slc7A1, Slc7A2, iNOS, and ArgI essential to NO synthesis was up-regulated in M.bovis/BCG infected DCs. IFN-γ addition further increased, while the iNOS inhibitor L-NMMA significantly inhibited their expression. Accordingly, the end products of arginine metabolism, NO and urea, were found to be significantly increased. In addition, BCG induced significantly higher levels of apoptosis in DCs compared to M.bovis shown by higher levels of DNA fragmentation using flow cytometry and release of mitochondrial Cytochrome C, and up-regulation of the genes caspase-3, caspase-8, caspase-9 and dffa critical to apoptosis by qRT-PCR detection and western blot analysis. Furthermore, IFN-γ increased, but L-NMMA decreased apoptosis of M.bovis/BCG infected DCs. In addition, mycobacterial intracellular survival was significantly reduced by IFN-γ treatment in BCG infected DCs, while slightly increased by L-NMMA treatment. Taken altogether, our data show that NO synthesis was differentially increased and associated with apoptosis in M.bovis/BCG infected DCs. These findings may significantly contribute to elucidate the pathogenesis of M.bovis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Han Liu
- The National Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, Wuhan, China; College of Veterinary Medicine, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, China.
| | - Xuekai Xiong
- The National Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, Wuhan, China; College of Veterinary Medicine, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, China.
| | - Tingting Zhu
- The National Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, Wuhan, China; College of Veterinary Medicine, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, China.
| | - Yifan Zhu
- The National Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, Wuhan, China; College of Veterinary Medicine, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, China.
| | - Yongchong Peng
- The National Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, Wuhan, China; College of Veterinary Medicine, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, China.
| | - Xiaojie Zhu
- The National Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, Wuhan, China; College of Veterinary Medicine, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, China.
| | - Jieru Wang
- The National Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, Wuhan, China; College of Veterinary Medicine, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, China.
| | - Huanchun Chen
- The National Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, Wuhan, China; College of Veterinary Medicine, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, China.
| | - Yingyu Chen
- The National Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, Wuhan, China; College of Veterinary Medicine, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, China.
| | - Aizhen Guo
- The National Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, Wuhan, China; College of Veterinary Medicine, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, China; Hubei International Scientific and Technological Cooperation Base of Veterinary Epidemiology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, 430070, China; Key Laboratory of Development of Veterinary Diagnostic Products, Key Laboratory of Ruminant Bio-products, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, 430070, China; Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, 430070, China.
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Kim WS, Shin MK, Shin SJ. MAP1981c, a Putative Nucleic Acid-Binding Protein, Produced by Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis, Induces Maturation of Dendritic Cells and Th1-Polarization. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2018; 8:206. [PMID: 29977867 PMCID: PMC6021526 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2018.00206] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/28/2018] [Accepted: 06/05/2018] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis (MAP) is the causative pathogen of chronic granulomatous enteropathy (Johne's disease) in animals, and has been focused on its association with various autoimmune diseases in humans, including Crohn's disease. The discovery of novel mycobacterial antigens and exploring their role in host immunity can contribute to the advancement of effective defense strategies including vaccines and diagnostic tools. In a preliminary study, we identified cellular extract proteins of MAP that strongly react with the blood of patients with Crohn's disease. In particular, MAP1981c, a putative nucleic acid-binding protein, showed high expression levels and strong reactivity to IgG and IgM in the sera of patients. Here, we investigated the immunological features of MAP1981c and focused on its interaction with dendritic cells (DCs), confirming its immunomodulatory ability. MAP1981c was shown to recognize Toll-like receptor (TLR) 4, and induce DC maturation and activation by increasing the expression of co-stimulatory (CD80 and CD86) and MHC class I/II molecules and the secretion of pro-inflammatory cytokines (IL-6, IL-1β, and TNF-α) in DCs. This DC activation by MAP1981c was mediated by downstream signaling of TLR4 via MyD88- and TRIF-, MAP kinase-, and NF-κB-dependent signaling pathways. In addition, MAP1981c-treated DCs activated naïve T cells and induced the differentiation of CD4+ and CD8+ T cells to express T-bet, IFN-γ, and/or IL-2, but not GATA-3 and IL-4, thus indicating that MAP1981c contributes to Th1-type immune responses both in vitro and in vivo. Taken together, these results suggest that MAP1981c is a novel immunocompetent antigen that induces DC maturation and a Th1-biased response upon DC activation, suggesting that MAP1981c can be an effective vaccine and diagnostic target.
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Affiliation(s)
- Woo Sik Kim
- Department of Microbiology and Institute for Immunology and Immunological Diseases, Brain Korea 21 PLUS Project for Medical Science, Yonsei University College of Medicine, Seoul, South Korea.,Advanced Radiation Technology Institute, Korea Atomic Energy Research Institute, Jeongeup, South Korea
| | - Min-Kyoung Shin
- Department of Microbiology, Institute of Health Sciences, College of Medicine, Gyeongsang National University, Jinju, South Korea
| | - Sung Jae Shin
- Department of Microbiology and Institute for Immunology and Immunological Diseases, Brain Korea 21 PLUS Project for Medical Science, Yonsei University College of Medicine, Seoul, South Korea
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Meißner T, Eckelt E, Basler T, Meens J, Heinzmann J, Suwandi A, Oelemann WMR, Trenkamp S, Holst O, Weiss S, Bunk B, Spröer C, Gerlach GF, Goethe R. The Mycobacterium avium ssp. paratuberculosis specific mptD gene is required for maintenance of the metabolic homeostasis necessary for full virulence in mouse infections. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2014; 4:110. [PMID: 25177550 PMCID: PMC4132290 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2014.00110] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/28/2014] [Accepted: 07/25/2014] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Mycobacterium avium subspecies paratuberculosis (MAP) causes Johne's disease, a chronic granulomatous enteritis in ruminants. Furthermore, infections of humans with MAP have been reported and a possible association with Crohn's disease and diabetes type I is currently discussed. MAP owns large sequence polymorphisms (LSPs) that were exclusively found in this mycobacteria species. The relevance of these LSPs in the pathobiology of MAP is still unclear. The mptD gene (MAP3733c) of MAP belongs to a small group of functionally uncharacterized genes, which are not present in any other sequenced mycobacteria species. mptD is part of a predicted operon (mptABCDEF), encoding a putative ATP binding cassette-transporter, located on the MAP-specific LSP14. In the present study, we generated an mptD knockout strain (MAPΔmptD) by specialized transduction. In order to investigate the potential role of mptD in the host, we performed infection experiments with macrophages. By this, we observed a significantly reduced cell number of MAPΔmptD early after infection, indicating that the mutant was hampered with respect to adaptation to the early macrophage environment. This important role of mptD was supported in mouse infection experiments where MAPΔmptD was significantly attenuated after peritoneal challenge. Metabolic profiling was performed to determine the cause for the reduced virulence and identified profound metabolic disorders especially in the lipid metabolism of MAPΔmptD. Overall our data revealed the mptD gene to be an important factor for the metabolic adaptation of MAP required for persistence in the host.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thorsten Meißner
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Institute for Microbiology, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover Hannover, Germany
| | - Elke Eckelt
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Institute for Microbiology, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover Hannover, Germany
| | - Tina Basler
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Institute for Microbiology, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover Hannover, Germany
| | - Jochen Meens
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Institute for Microbiology, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover Hannover, Germany
| | - Julia Heinzmann
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Institute for Microbiology, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover Hannover, Germany
| | - Abdulhadi Suwandi
- Helmholtz Centre for Infection Research, Molecular Immunology Braunschweig, Germany
| | - Walter M R Oelemann
- Departamento de Imunologia, Instituto de Microbiologia Paulo Góes, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro (UFRJ) Rio de Janeiro, Brazil ; Division of Structural Biochemistry, Research Center Borstel, Leibniz-Center for Medicine and Biosciences Borstel, Germany
| | | | - Otto Holst
- Division of Structural Biochemistry, Research Center Borstel, Leibniz-Center for Medicine and Biosciences Borstel, Germany
| | - Siegfried Weiss
- Helmholtz Centre for Infection Research, Molecular Immunology Braunschweig, Germany
| | - Boyke Bunk
- Bioinformatics, Leibniz Institute DSMZ-German Collection of Microorganisms and Cell Cultures Braunschweig, Germany ; German Centre of Infection Research, Partner Site Hannover-Braunschweig Braunschweig, Germany
| | - Cathrin Spröer
- Bioinformatics, Leibniz Institute DSMZ-German Collection of Microorganisms and Cell Cultures Braunschweig, Germany ; German Centre of Infection Research, Partner Site Hannover-Braunschweig Braunschweig, Germany
| | - Gerald-F Gerlach
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Institute for Microbiology, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover Hannover, Germany
| | - Ralph Goethe
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Institute for Microbiology, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover Hannover, Germany
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Atreya R, Bülte M, Gerlach GF, Goethe R, Hornef MW, Köhler H, Meens J, Möbius P, Roeb E, Weiss S. Facts, myths and hypotheses on the zoonotic nature of Mycobacterium avium subspecies paratuberculosis. Int J Med Microbiol 2014; 304:858-67. [PMID: 25128370 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijmm.2014.07.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Mycobacterium avium subspecies paratuberculosis (MAP) is the causative agent of paratuberculosis (Johne's disease [JD]), a chronic granulomatous enteritis in ruminants. JD is one of the most widespread bacterial diseases of domestic animals with significant economic impact. The histopathological picture of JD resembles that of Crohn's disease (CD), a human chronic inflammatory bowel disease of still unresolved aetiology. An aetiological relevance of MAP for CD has been proposed. This and the ambiguity of other published epidemiological findings raise the question whether MAP represents a zoonotic agent. In this review, we will discuss evidence that MAP has zoonotic capacity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Raja Atreya
- Medical Clinic 1, University of Erlangen-Nuermberg, Ulmenweg 18, D-91054 Erlangen, Germany
| | - Michael Bülte
- Institute of Veterinary Food Science, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Justus Liebig University, Frankfurter Straße 92, 35392 Gießen, Germany
| | | | - Ralph Goethe
- Institute for Microbiology, Department of Infectious Diseases, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, Bischofsholer Damm 15, 30173 Hannover, Germany.
| | - Mathias W Hornef
- Department of Microbiology, Hannover Medical School, Carl-Neuberg-Str. 1, 30625 Hannover, Germany
| | - Heike Köhler
- Institute of Molecular Pathogenesis, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut (Federal Research Institute for Animal Health), Naumburger Str. 96a, 07743 Jena, Germany
| | - Jochen Meens
- Institute for Microbiology, Department of Infectious Diseases, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, Bischofsholer Damm 15, 30173 Hannover, Germany
| | - Petra Möbius
- Institute of Molecular Pathogenesis, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut (Federal Research Institute for Animal Health), Naumburger Str. 96a, 07743 Jena, Germany
| | - Elke Roeb
- Justus-Liebig-University Giessen, Department of Gastroenterology, Klinikstr.33, 35392 Giessen, Germany
| | - Siegfried Weiss
- Helmholtz Centre for Infection Research, Molecular Immunology, Inhoffenstraße 7, 38124 Braunschweig, Germany
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Key role for the alternative sigma factor, SigH, in the intracellular life of Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis during macrophage stress. Infect Immun 2013; 81:2242-57. [PMID: 23569115 DOI: 10.1128/iai.01273-12] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis causes Johne's disease, an enteric infection in cattle and other ruminants, greatly afflicting the dairy industry worldwide. Once inside the cell, M. avium subsp. paratuberculosis is known to survive harsh microenvironments, especially those inside activated macrophages. To improve our understanding of M. avium subsp. paratuberculosis pathogenesis, we examined phagosome maturation associated with transcriptional responses of M. avium subsp. paratuberculosis during macrophage infection. Monitoring cellular markers, only live M. avium subsp. paratuberculosis bacilli were able to prevent phagosome maturation and reduce its acidification. On the transcriptional level, over 300 M. avium subsp. paratuberculosis genes were significantly and differentially regulated in both naive and IFN-γ-activated macrophages. These genes include the sigma factor H (sigH) that was shown to be important for M. avium subsp. paratuberculosis survival inside gamma interferon (IFN-γ)-activated bovine macrophages. Interestingly, an sigH-knockout mutant showed increased sensitivity to a sustained level of thiol-specific oxidative stress. Large-scale RNA sequence analysis revealed that a large number of genes belong to the sigH regulon, especially following diamide stress. Genes involved in oxidative stress and virulence were among the induced genes in the sigH regulon with a putative consensus sequence for SigH binding that was recognized in a subset of these genes (n = 30), suggesting direct regulation by SigH. Finally, mice infections showed a significant attenuation of the ΔsigH mutant compared to its parental strain, suggesting a role for sigH in M. avium subsp. paratuberculosis virulence. Such analysis could identify potential targets for further testing as vaccine candidates against Johne's disease.
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