1
|
Gil Tejedor AM, Bravo Yagüe JC, Paniagua González G, Garcinuño Martínez RM, Fernández Hernando P. Selective Extraction of Diazepam and Its Metabolites from Urine Samples by a Molecularly Imprinted Solid-Phase Extraction (MISPE) Method. Polymers (Basel) 2024; 16:635. [PMID: 38475318 DOI: 10.3390/polym16050635] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2024] [Revised: 02/15/2024] [Accepted: 02/19/2024] [Indexed: 03/14/2024] Open
Abstract
In this research, a molecularly imprinted polymer (MIP) was synthesized by precipitation polymerization using oxazepam (OZ) as a template molecule and was subsequently applied as a selective sorbent for the extraction of diazepam (DZP) and its metabolites in urine samples using an SPE cartridge. OZ, temazepam (TZ), nordiazepam (NZ) and DZP were analyzed in the final extracts by high-performance liquid chromatography with diode array detection (HPLC-DAD). The SPE extraction steps were optimized, and the evaluation of an imprinting factor was carried out. The selectivity of the method for OZ versus structurally related benzodiazepines (BZDs), such as bromazepam (BRZ), tetrazepam (TTZ) and halazepam (HZ), was investigated. Under the optimum conditions, the proposed methodology provided good linearity in the range of 10-1500 ng/mL, with limit of detection values between 13.5 and 21.1 ng/mL and recovery levels for DZP and its metabolites from 89.0 to 93.9% (RSD ≤ 8%) at a concentration level of 1000 ng/mL. The proposed method exhibited good selectivity, precision and accuracy and was applied to the analysis of urine samples from a real case of DZP intake.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ana María Gil Tejedor
- Department of Analytical Sciences, Faculty of Sciences, National Distance Education University (UNED), Urbanización Monte Rozas, Avda. Esparta s/n, 28232 Las Rozas, Madrid, Spain
| | - Juan Carlos Bravo Yagüe
- Department of Analytical Sciences, Faculty of Sciences, National Distance Education University (UNED), Urbanización Monte Rozas, Avda. Esparta s/n, 28232 Las Rozas, Madrid, Spain
| | - Gema Paniagua González
- Department of Analytical Sciences, Faculty of Sciences, National Distance Education University (UNED), Urbanización Monte Rozas, Avda. Esparta s/n, 28232 Las Rozas, Madrid, Spain
| | - Rosa María Garcinuño Martínez
- Department of Analytical Sciences, Faculty of Sciences, National Distance Education University (UNED), Urbanización Monte Rozas, Avda. Esparta s/n, 28232 Las Rozas, Madrid, Spain
| | - Pilar Fernández Hernando
- Department of Analytical Sciences, Faculty of Sciences, National Distance Education University (UNED), Urbanización Monte Rozas, Avda. Esparta s/n, 28232 Las Rozas, Madrid, Spain
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Ossanes DS, Birk L, Petry AUS, de Menezes FP, Gonzaga AP, Schlickmann PF, Eller S, de Oliveira TF. Cork sheet as an efficient biosorbent for forensic toxicology: Application to vitreous humor analysis. J Anal Toxicol 2023; 47:580-587. [PMID: 37506044 DOI: 10.1093/jat/bkad045] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2023] [Revised: 07/05/2023] [Accepted: 06/20/2023] [Indexed: 07/30/2023] Open
Abstract
There is an increasing number of people affected worldwide by mental health disorders, such as depression and anxiety. One of the main courses of treatment, along with psychotherapy, is the use of psychoactive medications, like antidepressants and benzodiazepines. Also, the unprescribed use of these substances is a concerning public health issue. Hence, the analysis of psychotropic medications is mandatory in postmortem toxicology and various biological samples can be used for this detection, among them the vitreous humor (VH) stands out. Also, there is a demand for more sustainable and more efficient extraction methodologies according to green chemistry. An example is solid phase microextraction techniques (SPME), which use a solid sorbent and small solvent amounts. Biosorbents are substances of natural origin with sorptive properties, and they have been successfully used in SPME in environmental toxicology for water analysis, mainly. This study aimed to develop a sustainable, fast, cheap and simple SPME methodology using cork sheet strips as a biosorbent, to extract antidepressants, benzodiazepines and others from VH samples by liquid chromatography coupled to tandem mass spectrometry. The extraction was conducted in a 96-well plate using 200 µL of VH and optimization of relevant parameters for extraction was performed. For solvent optimization, two simplex-centroid experiments were planned for extraction and desorption and to evaluate time and pH, a Doehlert design experiment was performed. The analytical method for the determination and quantification of 17 substances was validated. The quantification limits were 5 ng/mL for all analytes and the calibration curves were linear between 5 and 30 ng/mL. This study was able to develop an efficient, cheap, simple and fast microextraction method for 17 analytes in VH, using strips of cork sheet for extraction and a 96-well plate as a container. Furthermore, this approach system could be automated for routine toxicology laboratories.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Daniela Souza Ossanes
- Graduate Program in Health Sciences, Federal University of Health Sciences of Porto Alegre, Porto Alegre, RS 90050-170, Brazil
| | - Letícia Birk
- Graduate Program in Health Sciences, Federal University of Health Sciences of Porto Alegre, Porto Alegre, RS 90050-170, Brazil
| | - Adriana Ubirajara Silva Petry
- Graduate Program in Health Sciences, Federal University of Health Sciences of Porto Alegre, Porto Alegre, RS 90050-170, Brazil
- Division of Postmortem Inspection, Associação Hospitalar Vila Nova, Porto Alegre, RS 91750-040, Brazil
- Graduate Program in Pathology, Federal University of Health Sciences of Porto Alegre, Porto Alegre, RS 90050-170, Brazil
| | - Francisco Paz de Menezes
- Division of Postmortem Inspection, Associação Hospitalar Vila Nova, Porto Alegre, RS 91750-040, Brazil
| | - Alexsandro Pinto Gonzaga
- Division of Postmortem Inspection, Associação Hospitalar Vila Nova, Porto Alegre, RS 91750-040, Brazil
| | - Paula Flores Schlickmann
- Division of Postmortem Inspection, Associação Hospitalar Vila Nova, Porto Alegre, RS 91750-040, Brazil
| | - Sarah Eller
- Graduate Program in Health Sciences, Federal University of Health Sciences of Porto Alegre, Porto Alegre, RS 90050-170, Brazil
| | - Tiago Franco de Oliveira
- Graduate Program in Health Sciences, Federal University of Health Sciences of Porto Alegre, Porto Alegre, RS 90050-170, Brazil
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Fitaihi R, Abukhamees S, Orlu M, Craig DQM. Transscleral Delivery of Dexamethasone-Loaded Microparticles Using a Dissolving Microneedle Array. Pharmaceutics 2023; 15:1622. [PMID: 37376071 DOI: 10.3390/pharmaceutics15061622] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/23/2023] [Revised: 05/20/2023] [Accepted: 05/26/2023] [Indexed: 06/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Microneedles (MNs) have attracted considerable interest as a means of ocular drug delivery, a challenging delivery route due to the limitations imposed by the various biological barriers associated with this organ. In this study, a novel ocular drug delivery system was developed by formulating a dissolvable MN array containing dexamethasone-loaded PLGA microparticles for scleral drug deposition. The microparticles serve as a drug reservoir for controlled transscleral delivery. The MNs displayed sufficient mechanical strength to penetrate the porcine sclera. Dexamethasone (Dex) scleral permeation was significantly higher than in topically instilled dosage forms. The MN system was able to distribute the drug through the ocular globe, with 19.2% of the administered Dex detected in the vitreous humour. Additionally, images of the sectioned sclera confirmed the diffusion of fluorescent-labelled microparticles within the scleral matrix. The system therefore represents a potential approach for minimally invasive Dex delivery to the posterior of the eye, which lends itself to self-administration and hence high patient convenience.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Rawan Fitaihi
- Research Department of Pharmaceutics, School of Pharmacy, University College London, 29-39 Brunswick Square, London WC1N 1AX, UK
| | - Shorooq Abukhamees
- Research Department of Pharmaceutics, School of Pharmacy, University College London, 29-39 Brunswick Square, London WC1N 1AX, UK
| | - Mine Orlu
- Research Department of Pharmaceutics, School of Pharmacy, University College London, 29-39 Brunswick Square, London WC1N 1AX, UK
| | - Duncan Q M Craig
- Research Department of Pharmaceutics, School of Pharmacy, University College London, 29-39 Brunswick Square, London WC1N 1AX, UK
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Zhang YX, Zhang Y, Bian Y, Liu YJ, Ren A, Zhou Y, Shi D, Feng XS. Benzodiazepines in complex biological matrices: Recent updates on pretreatment and detection methods. J Pharm Anal 2023. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jpha.2023.03.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/04/2023] Open
|
5
|
Øiestad EL, Øiestad ÅML, Middelkoop G, Brochmann GW, Thaulow CH, Vindenes V. Comparative Study of Postmortem Concentrations of Benzodiazepines and Z-Hypnotics in Several Different Matrices. J Anal Toxicol 2023; 47:287-298. [PMID: 36542823 PMCID: PMC10037634 DOI: 10.1093/jat/bkac106] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2021] [Revised: 11/24/2022] [Accepted: 12/20/2022] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Benzodiazepines and z-hypnotics are detected in the majority of fatal overdose cases in Norway, often in combination with other drugs of abuse, and their concentrations in peripheral blood (PB) might be important to elucidate the cause of death. In some forensic autopsies, PB is however not available. The aim of the present study was to compare concentrations of benzodiazepines and z-hypnotics in five alternative matrices to assess whether these concentrations are comparable to concentrations in PB. A total of 109 forensic autopsy cases were included. PB, cardiac blood (CB), pericardial fluid (PF), psoas muscle (PM), lateral vastus muscle (LVM) and vitreous humor (VH) from each case were analyzed using ultra high performance liquid chromatography--tandem mass spectrometry. We were able to detect clonazepam, 7-aminoclonazepam, flunitrazepam, 7-aminoflunitrazepam, nitrazepam, 7-aminonitrazepam, diazepam, nordiazepam, oxazepam, alprazolam, midazolam, zopiclone and zolpidem in all the analyzed matrices. Concentrations measured in VH were generally much lower than those of PB for all compounds except zopiclone. 7-Amino metabolite concentrations were high compared to the parent compounds, although less so for the muscle samples. Concentrations of the parent nitrobenzodiazepines in muscles were higher than those in PB, but for the other compounds, concentrations in muscle showed good correspondence with PB. Both CB and PF were viable alternative matrices for PB, although a larger variation and a tendency for higher concentrations in PF were observed. This study shows that CB, PM, LVM and PF can give comparable concentrations to PB for benzodiazepines and z-hypnotics, while VH was less suitable. The concentrations in alternative matrices must, however, be interpreted carefully.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Elisabeth Leere Øiestad
- Department of Forensic Sciences, Division of Laboratory Medicine, Oslo University Hospital, P.O. Box 4950, Oslo N-0424, Norway
- Department of Pharmacy, University of Oslo, P.O. Box 1068 Blindern, Oslo N-0316, Norway
| | - Åse Marit Leere Øiestad
- Department of Forensic Sciences, Division of Laboratory Medicine, Oslo University Hospital, P.O. Box 4950, Oslo N-0424, Norway
| | - Gerrit Middelkoop
- Department of Forensic Sciences, Division of Laboratory Medicine, Oslo University Hospital, P.O. Box 4950, Oslo N-0424, Norway
| | - Gerd-Wenche Brochmann
- Department of Forensic Sciences, Division of Laboratory Medicine, Oslo University Hospital, P.O. Box 4950, Oslo N-0424, Norway
| | - Cecilie Hasselø Thaulow
- Department of Forensic Sciences, Division of Laboratory Medicine, Oslo University Hospital, P.O. Box 4950, Oslo N-0424, Norway
| | - Vigdis Vindenes
- Department of Forensic Sciences, Division of Laboratory Medicine, Oslo University Hospital, P.O. Box 4950, Oslo N-0424, Norway
- Institute of Clinical Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Oslo, P.O. Box 1171 Blindern, Oslo 0318, Norway
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Bioanalytical method for simultaneous determination of benzodiazepines in vitreous humor using liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. J Forensic Leg Med 2022; 91:102434. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jflm.2022.102434] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2022] [Revised: 09/19/2022] [Accepted: 09/21/2022] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
|
7
|
Alternative matrices in forensic toxicology: a critical review. Forensic Toxicol 2021; 40:1-18. [DOI: 10.1007/s11419-021-00596-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/06/2021] [Accepted: 06/19/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Abstract
Purpose
The use of alternative matrices in toxicological analyses has been on the rise in clinical and forensic settings. Specimens alternative to blood and urine are useful in providing additional information regarding drug exposure and analytical benefits. The goal of this paper is to present a critical review on the most recent literature regarding the application of six common alternative matrices, i.e., oral fluid, hair, sweat, meconium, breast milk and vitreous humor in forensic toxicology.
Methods
The recent literature have been searched and reviewed for the characteristics, advantages and limitations of oral fluid, hair, sweat, meconium, breast milk and vitreous humor and its applications in the analysis of traditional drugs of abuse and novel psychoactive substances (NPS).
Results
This paper outlines the properties of six biological matrices that have been used in forensic analyses, as alternatives to whole blood and urine specimens. Each of this matrix has benefits in regards to sampling, extraction, detection window, typical drug levels and other aspects. However, theses matrices have also limitations such as limited incorporation of drugs (according to physical–chemical properties), impossibility to correlate the concentrations for effects, low levels of xenobiotics and ultimately the need for more sensitive analysis. For more traditional drugs of abuse (e.g., cocaine and amphetamines), there are already data available on the detection in alternative matrices. However, data on the determination of emerging drugs such as the NPS in alternative biological matrices are more limited.
Conclusions
Alternative biological fluids are important specimens in forensic toxicology. These matrices have been increasingly reported over the years, and this dynamic will probably continue in the future, especially considering their inherent advantages and the possibility to be used when blood or urine are unavailable. However, one should be aware that these matrices have limitations and particular properties, and the findings obtained from the analysis of these specimens may vary according to the type of matrix. As a potential perspective in forensic toxicology, the topic of alternative matrices will be continuously explored, especially emphasizing NPS.
Collapse
|
8
|
Hubbard JA, Navarrete AL, Fitzgerald RL, McIntyre IM. Acidic Drug Concentrations in Postmortem Vitreous Humor and Peripheral Blood. J Anal Toxicol 2021; 45:69-75. [PMID: 31696920 DOI: 10.1093/jat/bkz076] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/09/2019] [Revised: 06/13/2019] [Accepted: 06/24/2019] [Indexed: 01/31/2023] Open
Abstract
Vitreous humor is a potential alternative matrix for postmortem toxicology drug screens when peripheral blood is unavailable. It is easily and reliably collected and may not suffer from the same postmortem redistribution as seen in blood. Here, we compared the concentrations of 7 acidic drugs (acetaminophen, ibuprofen, naproxen, salicylic acid, carbamazepine, phenobarbital and phenytoin) in peripheral blood and vitreous fluid collected in 89 autopsy cases. Analysis was done by high-performance liquid chromatography with diode-array detection. Overall, we found that vitreous drug concentrations were significantly lower than peripheral blood with median vitreous to peripheral blood (V/PB) ratios ranging from 0.0 to 0.6 (mean, 0.1-0.6). The correlations between the concentrations of over-the-counter analgesics in peripheral blood versus vitreous fluid were poor, with acetaminophen exhibiting the best linearity (R2 = 0.72). The antiepileptic drugs (carbamazepine, phenytoin and phenobarbital) exhibited good correlations between peripheral blood and vitreous humor, with all exhibiting an R2 ≥ 0.95. Overall, we have demonstrated the potential of vitreous fluid as an alternative matrix for the detection of select acidic drugs.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Iain M McIntyre
- Department of the Medical Examiner, County of San Diego, CA 92123, USA
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
Ntoupa PSA, Armaos KP, Athanaselis SA, Spiliopoulou CA, Papoutsis II. Study of the distribution of antidepressant drugs in vitreous humor using a validated GC/MS method. Forensic Sci Int 2020; 317:110547. [PMID: 33129048 DOI: 10.1016/j.forsciint.2020.110547] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/23/2020] [Revised: 10/07/2020] [Accepted: 10/10/2020] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Vitreous humor has become in recent years an important alternative biological fluid in forensic toxicological analysis especially for the investigation of cases where alcohol and drugs of abuse are involved but there is limited scientific information regarding the distribution of antidepressant drugs in this material. This work aimed to study the distribution of antidepressant drugs in vitreous humor and to estimate the blood/vitreous humor concentration ratios of these drugs. For this purpose, a GC/MS method for the simultaneous determination of 9 antidepressant drugs, namely amitriptyline, nortriptyline, citalopram, clomipramine, fluoxetine, maprotiline, mirtazapine, sertraline and venlafaxine, and 4 of their metabolites, namely desmethylmaprotiline, desmethylmirtazapine, desmethylsertraline, O-desmethylvenlafaxine, was developed and validated. The developed method includes solid-phase extraction followed by derivatization with Heptafluorobutyric Anhydride. For all analytes, LOD and LOQ were 1.50 and 5.00ng/mL, respectively, and the calibration curves were linear within the dynamic range of 5.00-500.0ng/mL (R2≥0.990). The absolute recovery was found to be ≥86.3 % for all analytes. The accuracy (%Er) was found to range between -6.58 and 6.18 %, whereas the precision (%RSD) was less than 10.9 % for all analytes. The developed method was successfully applied to vitreous humor samples from 43 blood positive cases for antidepressant drugs. Whenever antidepressant drugs were detected in blood, they were also detected in the respective vitreous humor samples. The vitreous humor/blood concentration ratios were also calculated and were found to range from 0.04-7.07. Citalopram, mirtazapine, and its metabolite desmethylmirtazapine as well as venlafaxine and its metabolite O-desmethylvenlafaxine were the most identified substances in these samples (n≥4) and their results were better statistically evaluated. Our results suggest that vitreous humor could be an appropriate matrix for the determination of antidepressants in postmortem toxicology.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Panagoula-Stamatina A Ntoupa
- Department of Forensic Medicine and Toxicology, School of Medicine, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, 75, Mikras Asias street, 11527 Goudi, Athens, Greece
| | - Konstantinos P Armaos
- Department of Forensic Medicine and Toxicology, School of Medicine, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, 75, Mikras Asias street, 11527 Goudi, Athens, Greece
| | - Sotiris A Athanaselis
- Department of Forensic Medicine and Toxicology, School of Medicine, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, 75, Mikras Asias street, 11527 Goudi, Athens, Greece
| | - Chara A Spiliopoulou
- Department of Forensic Medicine and Toxicology, School of Medicine, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, 75, Mikras Asias street, 11527 Goudi, Athens, Greece
| | - Ioannis I Papoutsis
- Department of Forensic Medicine and Toxicology, School of Medicine, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, 75, Mikras Asias street, 11527 Goudi, Athens, Greece.
| |
Collapse
|
10
|
Elmansi H, Belal F. Development of an Eco-friendly HPLC method for the simultaneous determination of three benzodiazepines using green mobile phase. Microchem J 2019. [DOI: 10.1016/j.microc.2018.10.059] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
|
11
|
Gharedaghi F, Hassanian-Moghaddam H, Akhgari M, Zamani N, Taghadosinejad F. Drug-facilitated crime caused by drinks or foods. EGYPTIAN JOURNAL OF FORENSIC SCIENCES 2018. [DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/s41935-018-0100-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
|
12
|
Gharedaghi F, Hassanian-Moghaddam H, Akhgari M, Zamani N, Taghadosinejad F. Drug-facilitated crime caused by drinks or foods. EGYPTIAN JOURNAL OF FORENSIC SCIENCES 2018. [DOI: 10.1186/s41935-018-0100-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
|