1
|
He C, Song X, Zhu Z, Xiao Y, Chen J, Yao H, Xie R. Ghrelin may protect against vascular endothelial injury in Acute traumatic coagulopathy by mediating the RhoA/ROCK/MLC2 pathway. J Thromb Thrombolysis 2024:10.1007/s11239-024-03029-3. [PMID: 39179950 DOI: 10.1007/s11239-024-03029-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 08/01/2024] [Indexed: 08/26/2024]
Abstract
Ghrelin exerts widespread effects in several diseases, but its role and mechanism in Acute Traumatic Coagulopathy (ATC) are largely unknown. The effect of ghrelin on cell proliferation was examined using three assays: 3-(4,5-dimethyl-2-thiazolyl)-2,5-diphenyl-2-H-tetrazolium bromide (MTT), Lactate Dehydrogenase (LDH), and flow cytometry. The barrier function of the endothelial cells was evaluated using the Trans-Endothelial Electrical Resistance (TEER) and the endothelial permeability assay. An ATC mouse model was established to evaluate the in vivo effects of ghrelin. The Ras homolog family member A (RhoA) overexpression plasmid or adenovirus was used to examine the molecular mechanism of ghrelin. Ghrelin enhanced Human Umbilical Vein Endothelial Cells (HUVEC) proliferation and endothelial cell barrier function and inhibited HUVEC permeability damage in vitro. Additionally, ghrelin decreased the activated Partial Thromboplastin Time (aPTT) and Prothrombin Time (PT) in mice blood samples in the ATC mouse model. Ghrelin also improved the pathological alterations in postcava. Mechanistically, ghrelin acts through the RhoA/ Rho-associated Coiled-coil Containing Kinases (ROCK)/ Myosin Light Chain 2 (MLC2) pathway. Furthermore, the protective effects of ghrelin, both in vitro and in vivo, were reversed by RhoA overexpression. Our findings demonstrate that ghrelin may reduce vascular endothelial cell damage and endothelial barrier dysfunction by blocking the RhoA pathway, suggesting that ghrelin may serve as a potential therapeutic target for ATC treatment.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Chengjian He
- Affiliated Nanhua Hospital, University of South China, No. 336, Dongfeng South Road Zhuhui District, Hengyang City, Hunan Province, China
| | - Xiaojing Song
- Affiliated Nanhua Hospital, University of South China, No. 336, Dongfeng South Road Zhuhui District, Hengyang City, Hunan Province, China
| | - Zigui Zhu
- Affiliated Nanhua Hospital, University of South China, No. 336, Dongfeng South Road Zhuhui District, Hengyang City, Hunan Province, China
| | - Yan Xiao
- Affiliated Nanhua Hospital, University of South China, No. 336, Dongfeng South Road Zhuhui District, Hengyang City, Hunan Province, China
| | - Jiacheng Chen
- Affiliated Nanhua Hospital, University of South China, No. 336, Dongfeng South Road Zhuhui District, Hengyang City, Hunan Province, China
| | - Hongyi Yao
- Affiliated Nanhua Hospital, University of South China, No. 336, Dongfeng South Road Zhuhui District, Hengyang City, Hunan Province, China
| | - Rongjun Xie
- Affiliated Nanhua Hospital, University of South China, No. 336, Dongfeng South Road Zhuhui District, Hengyang City, Hunan Province, China.
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Joseph BC, Sekayan T, Falah N, Barnes RFW, Flood V, De Pablo-Moreno JA, von Drygalski A. Traumatic bleeding and mortality in mice are intensified by iron deficiency anemia and can be rescued with tranexamic acid. Res Pract Thromb Haemost 2024; 8:102543. [PMID: 39286605 PMCID: PMC11403369 DOI: 10.1016/j.rpth.2024.102543] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/29/2024] [Revised: 07/24/2024] [Accepted: 07/31/2024] [Indexed: 09/19/2024] Open
Abstract
Background Clinical evidence suggests that anemia exacerbates traumatic bleeding and worsens outcomes. Objectives To study the influence of iron deficiency anemia on traumatic bleeding, coagulopathy, and mortality. Methods C57BL/6J mice received an iron-deficient diet (8 weeks; ±1 mg intraperitoneal iron dextran 2 weeks before trauma). Control mice received a normal diet. Iron deficiency anemia was confirmed by hematocrit, red cell indices, and liver iron. Mice received saline or tranexamic acid (TXA; 10 mg/kg) just before liver laceration. Blood loss, coagulopathy (activated partial thromboplastin time, factor [F]II, FV, FVIII, FX, and fibrinogen), D-dimer, thrombin-antithrombin complexes, and plasmin-alpha-2-antiplasmin complexes were analyzed at 15 and 60 minutes, and a cytokine panel was performed at 60 minutes and 6 hours after trauma. Survival was monitored for 7 days. Results Compared with nonanemic mice, anemic mice had lower hematocrit and hepatic iron content. Anemic mice experienced higher blood loss compared with nonanemic mice, which was reduced by TXA. Both groups developed traumatic coagulopathy characterized by activated partial thromboplastin time prolongation, thrombin-antithrombin complex formation, and depletion of FV, FVIII, and fibrinogen. TXA corrected the coagulopathy. However, plasmin-alpha-2-antiplasmin complex formation and D-dimers, markers of fibrinolysis, were higher in anemic mice and were not corrected by TXA. Seven-day survival was low in anemic mice, and rescued by TXA, but high in nonanemic mice without additional improvement by TXA. Among cytokines, only interleukin-6 increased, which was prevented by TXA most notably in anemic mice. Conclusion These observations provide first and critical proof-of-principle evidence that anemia accelerates traumatic bleeding and increases mortality, which could be rescued by anemia correction (parenteral iron) or periprocedural TXA.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Bilgimol Chumappumkal Joseph
- Department of Medicine, Division of Hematology/Oncology, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California, USA
| | - Tro Sekayan
- Department of Medicine, Division of Hematology/Oncology, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California, USA
| | - Nicca Falah
- Department of Medicine, Division of Hematology/Oncology, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California, USA
| | - Richard F W Barnes
- Department of Medicine, Division of Hematology/Oncology, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California, USA
| | - Veronica Flood
- Versiti Blood Research Institute, Department of Pediatrics, Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, Wisconsin, USA
| | - Juan A De Pablo-Moreno
- Department of Genetic, Physiology and Microbiology, Biology School, Complutense University of Madrid, Madrid, Spain
| | - Annette von Drygalski
- Department of Medicine, Division of Hematology/Oncology, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California, USA
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Sim DS, Mallari CR, Bauzon M, Hermiston TW. Rapid clearing CT-001 restored hemostasis in mice with coagulopathy induced by activated protein C. J Trauma Acute Care Surg 2024; 96:276-286. [PMID: 37335129 DOI: 10.1097/ta.0000000000004079] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/21/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Activated protein C (APC) is one of the mechanisms contributing to coagulopathy, which is associated with high mortality. The counteraction of the APC pathway could help ameliorate bleeding. However, patients also transform frequently from a hemorrhagic state to a prothrombotic state at a later time. Therefore, a prohemostatic therapeutic intervention should take this thrombotic risk into consideration. OBJECTIVES CT-001 is a novel factor VIIa (FVIIa) with enhanced activity and desialylated N-glycans for rapid clearance. We assessed CT-001 clearance in multiple species and its ability to reverse APC-mediated coagulopathic blood loss. METHODS The N-glycans on CT-001 were characterized by liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry. Three species were used to evaluate the pharmacokinetics of the molecule. The potency and efficacy of CT-001 under APC pathway-induced coagulopathic conditions were assessed by coagulation assays and bleeding models. RESULTS The N-glycosylation sites of CT-001 had high occupancy of desialylated N-glycans. CT-001 exhibited 5 to 16 times higher plasma clearance in human tissue factor knockin mice, rats, and cynomolgus monkeys than wildtype FVIIa. CT-001 corrected the activated partial thromboplastin time and thrombin generation of coagulopathic plasma to normal in in vitro studies. In an APC-mediated saphenous vein bleeding model, 3 mg/kg of CT-001 reduced bleeding time in comparison with wildtype FVIIa. The correction of bleeding by CT-001 was also observed in a coagulopathic tail amputation severe hemorrhage mouse model. The efficacy of CT-001 is independent of the presence of tranexamic acid, and the combination of CT-001 and tranexamic acid does not lead to increased thrombogenicity. CONCLUSION CT-001 corrected APC pathway-mediated coagulopathic conditions in preclinical studies and could be a potentially safe and effective procoagulant agent for addressing APC-mediated bleeding.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Derek S Sim
- From the Research Department (D.S.S., C.R.M., T.W.H.), Coagulant Therapeutics Corporation; and Consultant of Coagulant Therapeutics Corporation (M.B.), Berkeley, California
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
4
|
Preston RJS. New targeted therapy for hemophilia. Blood 2023; 142:1032-1034. [PMID: 37733378 DOI: 10.1182/blood.2023021385] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 09/22/2023] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Roger J S Preston
- Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland University of Medicine and Health Sciences and Children's Health Ireland Crumlin
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Pfister P, Garcia Wendel PD, Kim BS, Schuepbach RA, Steiger P, Camen G, Buehler PK. Coagulation side effects of enzymatic debridement in burned patients. Burns 2023; 49:1272-1281. [PMID: 36566096 DOI: 10.1016/j.burns.2022.11.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/06/2022] [Revised: 09/19/2022] [Accepted: 11/29/2022] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES Bromelain-based enzymatic debridement has emerged as a valuable option to the standard surgical intervention for debridement in burn injuries. Adverse effects on coagulation parameters after enzymatic debridement have been described. The purpose of this study was to compare the effect of enzymatic and surgical debridement on coagulation. METHODS Between 03/2017 and 02/2021 patients with burn injuries with a total body surface area (TBSA) ≥ 1% were included in the study. Patients were categorized into two groups: the surgically debrided group and the enzymatically debrided group. Coagulation parameters were assessed daily for the first seven days of hospitalization. RESULTS In total 132 patients with a mean TBSA of 17% were included in this study, of which 66 received enzymatic debridement and 66 received regular surgical-debridement. Patients receiving enzymatic debridement presented significantly higher factor-V concentration values over the first seven days after admission (p = <0.01). Regarding coagulation parameters, we found no difference in INR-, aPTT-, fibrinogen-, factor-XIII- and thrombocyte-concentrations over the first seven days (p = >0.05). CONCLUSION Enzymatic debridement in burned patients does not appear to increase the risk of coagulation abnormalities compared with the regular surgical approach.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Pablo Pfister
- Institute of intensive Care Medicine, University Hospital of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | | | - Bong Sung Kim
- Department of Plastic Surgery and Hand Surgery, University Hospital of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | | | - Peter Steiger
- Institute of intensive Care Medicine, University Hospital of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Giovanni Camen
- Institute of intensive Care Medicine, University Hospital of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Philipp Karl Buehler
- Institute of intensive Care Medicine, University Hospital of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland; Center of Intensive Care Medicine, Cantonal Hospital Winterthur, Winterthur, Switzerland
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Sim DS, Shukla M, Mallari CR, Fernández JA, Xu X, Schneider D, Bauzon M, Hermiston TW, Mosnier LO. Selective modulation of activated protein C activities by a nonactive site-targeting nanobody library. Blood Adv 2023; 7:3036-3048. [PMID: 36735416 PMCID: PMC10331410 DOI: 10.1182/bloodadvances.2022008740] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/10/2022] [Revised: 01/13/2023] [Accepted: 01/24/2023] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Activated protein C (APC) is a pleiotropic coagulation protease with anticoagulant, anti-inflammatory, and cytoprotective activities. Selective modulation of these APC activities contributes to our understanding of the regulation of these physiological mechanisms and permits the development of therapeutics for the pathologies associated with these pathways. An antibody library targeting the nonactive site of APC was generated using llama antibodies (nanobodies). Twenty-one nanobodies were identified that selectively recognize APC compared with the protein C zymogen. Overall, 3 clusters of nanobodies were identified based on the competition for APC in biolayer interferometry studies. APC functional assays for anticoagulant activity, histone H3 cleavage, and protease-activated receptor 1 (PAR1) cleavage were used to understand their diversity. These functional assays revealed 13 novel nanobody-induced APC activity profiles via the selective modulation of APC pleiotropic activities, with the potential to regulate specific mechanisms for therapeutic purposes. Within these, 3 nanobodies (LP2, LP8, and LP17) inhibited all 3 APC functions. Four nanobodies (LP1, LP5, LP16, and LP20) inhibited only 2 of the 3 functions. Monofunction inhibition specific to APC anticoagulation activity was observed only by 2 nanobodies (LP9 and LP11). LP11 was also found to shift the ratio of APC cleavage of PAR1 at R46 relative to R41, which results in APC-mediated biased PAR1 signaling and APC cytoprotective effects. Thus, LP11 has an activity profile that could potentially promote hemostasis and cytoprotection in bleedings associated with hemophilia or coagulopathy by selectively modulating APC anticoagulation and PAR1 cleavage profile.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Derek S. Sim
- Coagulant Therapeutics Corporation, Berkeley, CA
| | - Meenal Shukla
- Department of Molecular Medicine, Scripps Research, La Jolla, CA
| | | | | | - Xiao Xu
- Department of Molecular Medicine, Scripps Research, La Jolla, CA
| | | | - Maxine Bauzon
- Consultants for Coagulant Therapeutics, Berkeley, CA
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
7
|
De Pablo-Moreno JA, Miguel-Batuecas A, de Sancha M, Liras A. The Magic of Proteases: From a Procoagulant and Anticoagulant Factor V to an Equitable Treatment of Its Inherited Deficiency. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:ijms24076243. [PMID: 37047215 PMCID: PMC10093859 DOI: 10.3390/ijms24076243] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/24/2023] [Revised: 03/22/2023] [Accepted: 03/23/2023] [Indexed: 03/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Proteostasis, i.e., the homeostasis of proteins, responsible for ensuring protein turnover, is regulated by proteases, which also participate in the etiopathogenesis of multiple conditions. The magic of proteases is such that, in blood coagulation, one same molecule, such as coagulation factor V, for example, can perform both a procoagulant and an anticoagulant function as a result of the activity of proteases. However, this magic has an insidious side to it, as it may also prevent the completion of the clinical value chain of factor V deficiency. This value chain encompasses the discovery of knowledge, the transfer of this knowledge, and its translation to clinical practice. In the case of rare and ultra-rare diseases like factor V deficiency, this value chain has not been completed as the knowledge acquisition phase has dragged out over time, holding up the transfer of knowledge to clinical practice. The reason for this is related to the small number of patients afflicted with these conditions. As a result, new indications must be found to make the therapies cost-effective. In the case of factor V, significant research efforts have been directed at developing a recombinant factor V capable of resisting the action of the proteases capable of inactivating this factor. This is where bioethics and health equity considerations come into the equation.
Collapse
|
8
|
Eltringham-Smith LJ, Meixner SC, Pryzdial ELG, Sheffield WP. Correction of haemorrhagic shock-associated coagulopathy and impaired haemostasis by plasma, prothrombin complex concentrates or an activated protein C-targeted DNA aptamer in mice. Sci Rep 2023; 13:3811. [PMID: 36882463 PMCID: PMC9992365 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-023-30794-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/08/2022] [Accepted: 03/01/2023] [Indexed: 03/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Even with extensive transfusion support, trauma-induced bleeding often leads to death. Early intervention may improve outcomes, yet which blood products, factor concentrates, or other drugs constitute optimal treatment is unclear. Patients with acute traumatic coagulopathy (ATC), arising from trauma and haemorrhagic shock, have the worst prognosis. Here, multiple interventions were compared in a mouse model of ATC. After the trauma of tissue excision, anaesthetized mice were bled to 35 mm Hg mean arterial pressure, maintained under shock for 60 min, and resuscitated with fluids equal in volume to the shed blood. Resuscitated mice were subjected to liver laceration to test haemostasis and blood loss was quantified. Saline-treated mice lost two- to three-fold more blood than sham-treated animals and were coagulopathic by prothrombin time elevation post- versus pre-procedure. Murine fresh-frozen plasma (mFFP), anti-activated protein C aptamer HS02-52G, or prothrombin complex concentrates eliminated the bleeding diathesis and coagulopathy; fibrinogen, plasminogen activator inhibitor-1, or tranexamic acid ameliorated bleeding or coagulopathy, but not both. HS02-52G and mFFP also eliminated the changes in plasma aPC and tissue plasminogen activator levels observed in saline-treated mice, as judged via microtiter plate biomarker assays. Procoagulant interventions, especially inhibiting aPC, could be beneficial in human ATC.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | - Scott C Meixner
- Medical Affairs and Innovation, Canadian Blood Services, Vancouver, BC, Canada
- Centre for Blood Research, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | - Edward L G Pryzdial
- Medical Affairs and Innovation, Canadian Blood Services, Vancouver, BC, Canada
- Centre for Blood Research, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | - William P Sheffield
- Medical Affairs and Innovation, Canadian Blood Services, Hamilton, ON, Canada.
- Department of Pathology and Molecular Medicine, McMaster University, HSC 4N66, 1280 Main Street West, Hamilton, ON, L8S 4K1, Canada.
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
Abstract
PURPOSE OF REVIEW To provide an overview of the state-of-the-art in protein C (PC) pathway research. RECENT FINDINGS The PC pathway is crucial for maintaining hemostasis to prevent venous thromboembolism. This is evident from genetic mutations that result in impaired PC pathway activity and contribute to increased venous thromboembolism risk in affected individuals. In addition to its anticoagulant role, activated PC (APC) also mediates a complex, pleiotropic role in the maintenance of vascular cell health, which it achieves via anti-inflammatory and antiapoptotic cell signaling on endothelial cells. Emerging data have demonstrated that cell signaling by APC, mediated by multiple receptor interactions on different cell types, also confers cytoprotective and anti-inflammatory benefits. Defects in both arms of the PC pathway are associated with increased susceptibility to thrombo-inflammatory disease in various preclinical thrombotic, proinflammatory and neurological disease models. Moreover, recent studies have identified attenuation of anticoagulant PC pathway activity as an exciting therapeutic opportunity to promote hemostasis in patients with inherited or acquired bleeding disorders. SUMMARY In this review, we provide an overview of some recent developments in our understanding of the PC pathways.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Gemma Leon
- Irish Centre for Vascular Biology, School of Pharmacy and Biomolecular Sciences, Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland
- National Children's Research Centre, Our Lady's Children's Hospital Crumlin, Crumlin, Dublin 12, Ireland
| | - Aisling M Rehill
- Irish Centre for Vascular Biology, School of Pharmacy and Biomolecular Sciences, Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland
| | - Roger J S Preston
- Irish Centre for Vascular Biology, School of Pharmacy and Biomolecular Sciences, Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland
- National Children's Research Centre, Our Lady's Children's Hospital Crumlin, Crumlin, Dublin 12, Ireland
| |
Collapse
|
10
|
Pablo-Moreno JAD, Serrano LJ, Revuelta L, Sánchez MJ, Liras A. The Vascular Endothelium and Coagulation: Homeostasis, Disease, and Treatment, with a Focus on the Von Willebrand Factor and Factors VIII and V. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:ijms23158283. [PMID: 35955419 PMCID: PMC9425441 DOI: 10.3390/ijms23158283] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2022] [Revised: 07/22/2022] [Accepted: 07/23/2022] [Indexed: 11/27/2022] Open
Abstract
The vascular endothelium has several important functions, including hemostasis. The homeostasis of hemostasis is based on a fine balance between procoagulant and anticoagulant proteins and between fibrinolytic and antifibrinolytic ones. Coagulopathies are characterized by a mutation-induced alteration of the function of certain coagulation factors or by a disturbed balance between the mechanisms responsible for regulating coagulation. Homeostatic therapies consist in replacement and nonreplacement treatments or in the administration of antifibrinolytic agents. Rebalancing products reestablish hemostasis by inhibiting natural anticoagulant pathways. These agents include monoclonal antibodies, such as concizumab and marstacimab, which target the tissue factor pathway inhibitor; interfering RNA therapies, such as fitusiran, which targets antithrombin III; and protease inhibitors, such as serpinPC, which targets active protein C. In cases of thrombophilia (deficiency of protein C, protein S, or factor V Leiden), treatment may consist in direct oral anticoagulants, replacement therapy (plasma or recombinant ADAMTS13) in cases of a congenital deficiency of ADAMTS13, or immunomodulators (prednisone) if the thrombophilia is autoimmune. Monoclonal-antibody-based anti-vWF immunotherapy (caplacizumab) is used in the context of severe thrombophilia, regardless of the cause of the disorder. In cases of disseminated intravascular coagulation, the treatment of choice consists in administration of antifibrinolytics, all-trans-retinoic acid, and recombinant soluble human thrombomodulin.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Juan A. De Pablo-Moreno
- Department of Genetics, Physiology and Microbiology, School of Biology, Complutense University, 28040 Madrid, Spain; (J.A.D.P.-M.); (L.J.S.)
| | - Luis Javier Serrano
- Department of Genetics, Physiology and Microbiology, School of Biology, Complutense University, 28040 Madrid, Spain; (J.A.D.P.-M.); (L.J.S.)
| | - Luis Revuelta
- Department of Physiology, School of Veterinary Medicine, Complutense University of Madrid, 28040 Madrid, Spain;
| | - María José Sánchez
- Centro Andaluz de Biología del Desarrollo (CABD), Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (CSIC), Junta de Andalucía, Pablo de Olavide University, 41013 Sevilla, Spain;
| | - Antonio Liras
- Department of Genetics, Physiology and Microbiology, School of Biology, Complutense University, 28040 Madrid, Spain; (J.A.D.P.-M.); (L.J.S.)
- Correspondence:
| |
Collapse
|