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Paduano S, Granata M, Turchi S, Modenese A, Galante P, Poggi A, Marchesi I, Frezza G, Dervishaj G, Vivoli R, Verri S, Marchetti S, Gobba F, Bargellini A. Factors Associated with SARS-CoV-2 Infection Evaluated by Antibody Response in a Sample of Workers from the Emilia-Romagna Region, Northern Italy. Antibodies (Basel) 2023; 12:77. [PMID: 38131799 PMCID: PMC10740768 DOI: 10.3390/antib12040077] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2023] [Revised: 10/18/2023] [Accepted: 11/27/2023] [Indexed: 12/23/2023] Open
Abstract
Factors associated with SARS-CoV-2 infection risk are still debated. This case-control study aims to investigate the possible relationship between SARS-CoV-2 infection, evaluated through antibody response, and the main sociodemographic, occupational, clinical-anamnestic, and biochemical factors in a population of Modena province (Northern Italy), mainly workers. Both workers who voluntarily joined the screening campaign proposed by companies and self-referred individuals who underwent serological testing were enrolled. Subjects with antibody positivity were recruited as cases (n = 166) and subjects tested negative (n = 239) as controls. A questionnaire on sociodemographic, occupational, and clinical data was administered through telephone interviews. Serum zinc/iron/copper/chromium/nickel, vitamins D/B12, folates, triglycerides, and LDL/HDL/total cholesterol were measured. Cases lived more often in urban areas (61.8% vs. 57%). Cases and controls did not differ significantly by working macrocategories, but the percentage of workers in the ceramic sector was higher among cases. Low adherence to preventive measures in the workplace was more frequent among seropositives. Folate concentration was significantly lower among cases. Therefore, adequate folate levels, living in rural areas, and good adherence to preventive strategies seem protective against infection. Workers in the ceramic sector seem to be at greater risk; specific factors involved are not defined, but preventive interventions are needed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stefania Paduano
- Department of Biomedical, Metabolic and Neural Sciences, Section of Public Health, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, 41125 Modena, Italy; (M.G.); (S.T.); (A.M.); (P.G.); (A.P.); (I.M.); (G.F.); (G.D.); (F.G.); (A.B.)
| | - Michele Granata
- Department of Biomedical, Metabolic and Neural Sciences, Section of Public Health, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, 41125 Modena, Italy; (M.G.); (S.T.); (A.M.); (P.G.); (A.P.); (I.M.); (G.F.); (G.D.); (F.G.); (A.B.)
| | - Sara Turchi
- Department of Biomedical, Metabolic and Neural Sciences, Section of Public Health, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, 41125 Modena, Italy; (M.G.); (S.T.); (A.M.); (P.G.); (A.P.); (I.M.); (G.F.); (G.D.); (F.G.); (A.B.)
| | - Alberto Modenese
- Department of Biomedical, Metabolic and Neural Sciences, Section of Public Health, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, 41125 Modena, Italy; (M.G.); (S.T.); (A.M.); (P.G.); (A.P.); (I.M.); (G.F.); (G.D.); (F.G.); (A.B.)
| | - Pasquale Galante
- Department of Biomedical, Metabolic and Neural Sciences, Section of Public Health, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, 41125 Modena, Italy; (M.G.); (S.T.); (A.M.); (P.G.); (A.P.); (I.M.); (G.F.); (G.D.); (F.G.); (A.B.)
| | - Alessandro Poggi
- Department of Biomedical, Metabolic and Neural Sciences, Section of Public Health, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, 41125 Modena, Italy; (M.G.); (S.T.); (A.M.); (P.G.); (A.P.); (I.M.); (G.F.); (G.D.); (F.G.); (A.B.)
| | - Isabella Marchesi
- Department of Biomedical, Metabolic and Neural Sciences, Section of Public Health, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, 41125 Modena, Italy; (M.G.); (S.T.); (A.M.); (P.G.); (A.P.); (I.M.); (G.F.); (G.D.); (F.G.); (A.B.)
| | - Giuseppina Frezza
- Department of Biomedical, Metabolic and Neural Sciences, Section of Public Health, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, 41125 Modena, Italy; (M.G.); (S.T.); (A.M.); (P.G.); (A.P.); (I.M.); (G.F.); (G.D.); (F.G.); (A.B.)
| | - Giulia Dervishaj
- Department of Biomedical, Metabolic and Neural Sciences, Section of Public Health, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, 41125 Modena, Italy; (M.G.); (S.T.); (A.M.); (P.G.); (A.P.); (I.M.); (G.F.); (G.D.); (F.G.); (A.B.)
| | - Roberto Vivoli
- Test Laboratory, 41100 Modena, Italy; (R.V.); (S.V.); (S.M.)
| | - Sara Verri
- Test Laboratory, 41100 Modena, Italy; (R.V.); (S.V.); (S.M.)
| | | | - Fabriziomaria Gobba
- Department of Biomedical, Metabolic and Neural Sciences, Section of Public Health, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, 41125 Modena, Italy; (M.G.); (S.T.); (A.M.); (P.G.); (A.P.); (I.M.); (G.F.); (G.D.); (F.G.); (A.B.)
| | - Annalisa Bargellini
- Department of Biomedical, Metabolic and Neural Sciences, Section of Public Health, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, 41125 Modena, Italy; (M.G.); (S.T.); (A.M.); (P.G.); (A.P.); (I.M.); (G.F.); (G.D.); (F.G.); (A.B.)
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Kamthe DD, Sarangkar SD, Dalvi MS, Gosavi NA, Nikam VS. Angiotensin converting enzyme 2 level and its significance in COVID-19 and other diseases patients. Eur J Clin Invest 2023; 53:e13891. [PMID: 36222740 PMCID: PMC9874405 DOI: 10.1111/eci.13891] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/06/2022] [Revised: 10/03/2022] [Accepted: 10/11/2022] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) expressions and its modulation are of great interest as being a key receptor for severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV2) and the protective arm of the rennin-angiotensin axis, maintaining cardiovascular homeostasis. However, ACE2 expressions and their modulation in the healthy and disease background are yet to be explored. METHOD We performed a meta-analysis, extracting the data for ACE2 expression in human subjects with various diseases, including SARS-CoV2 infection without or with co-morbidity. The Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines were followed. Out of 203 studies, 39 met the inclusion criteria with SARS-CoV2 patients without co-morbidity, SARS-CoV2 patients with co-morbidity, cardiovascular (CVD) patients, diabetes patients, kidney disorders patients, pulmonary disease patients, and other viral infections patients. RESULTS Angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 expression was significantly increased in all diseases. There was an elevated level of ACE2, especially membrane-bound ACE2, in COVID-19 patients compared to healthy controls. A statistically significant increase in ACE2 expression was observed in CVD patients and patients with other viral diseases compared to healthy subjects. Moreover, subgroup analysis of ACE2 expression as soluble and membrane-bound ACE2 revealed a remarkable increase in membrane-bound ACE2 in CVD patients, patients with viral infection compared to soluble ACE2 and pooled standard mean difference (SMD) with the random-effects model was 0.37 and 2.23 respectively. CONCLUSION It was observed that utilizing the ACE2 by SARS-CoV2 for its entry and its consequence leads to several complications. So there is a need to investigate the underlying mechanism along with novel therapeutic strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dipanjali Dhananjay Kamthe
- Department of Pharmacology, STES's, Smt. Kashibai Navale College of Pharmacy, Savitribai Phule Pune University, Pune, India
| | - Swapnil Dilip Sarangkar
- Department of Pharmacology, STES's, Smt. Kashibai Navale College of Pharmacy, Savitribai Phule Pune University, Pune, India
| | - Manali Suresh Dalvi
- Department of Pharmacology, STES's, Smt. Kashibai Navale College of Pharmacy, Savitribai Phule Pune University, Pune, India
| | - Netra Arun Gosavi
- Department of Pharmacology, STES's, Smt. Kashibai Navale College of Pharmacy, Savitribai Phule Pune University, Pune, India
| | - Vandana Sandeep Nikam
- Department of Pharmacology, STES's, Smt. Kashibai Navale College of Pharmacy, Savitribai Phule Pune University, Pune, India
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Sohal SS. Therapeutic Modalities for Asthma, COPD, and Pathogenesis of COVID-19: Insights from the Special Issue. J Clin Med 2022; 11:jcm11154525. [PMID: 35956140 PMCID: PMC9369734 DOI: 10.3390/jcm11154525] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/15/2022] [Accepted: 08/02/2022] [Indexed: 12/10/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Sukhwinder Singh Sohal
- Respiratory Translational Research Group, Department of Laboratory Medicine, School of Health Sciences, College of Health and Medicine, University of Tasmania, Launceston, TAS 7248, Australia
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Lu W, Eapen MS, Singhera GK, Markos J, Haug G, Chia C, Larby J, Brake SJ, Westall GP, Jaffar J, Kalidhindi RSR, Fonseka ND, Sathish V, Hackett TL, Sohal SS. Angiotensin-Converting Enzyme 2 (ACE2), Transmembrane Peptidase Serine 2 (TMPRSS2), and Furin Expression Increases in the Lungs of Patients with Idiopathic Pulmonary Fibrosis (IPF) and Lymphangioleiomyomatosis (LAM): Implications for SARS-CoV-2 (COVID-19) Infections. J Clin Med 2022; 11:jcm11030777. [PMID: 35160229 PMCID: PMC8837032 DOI: 10.3390/jcm11030777] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/20/2022] [Accepted: 01/24/2022] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
We previously reported higher ACE2 levels in smokers and patients with COPD. The current study investigates if patients with interstitial lung diseases (ILDs) such as IPF and LAM have elevated ACE2, TMPRSS2, and Furin levels, increasing their risk for SARS-CoV-2 infection and development of COVID-19. Surgically resected lung tissue from IPF, LAM patients, and healthy controls (HC) was immunostained for ACE2, TMPRSS2, and Furin. Percentage ACE2, TMPRSS2, and Furin expression was measured in small airway epithelium (SAE) and alveolar areas using computer-assisted Image-Pro Plus 7.0 software. IPF and LAM tissue was also immunostained for myofibroblast marker α-smooth muscle actin (α-SMA) and growth factor transforming growth factor beta1 (TGF-β1). Compared to HC, ACE2, TMPRSS2 and Furin expression were significantly upregulated in the SAE of IPF (p < 0.01) and LAM (p < 0.001) patients, and in the alveolar areas of IPF (p < 0.001) and LAM (p < 0.01). There was a significant positive correlation between smoking history and ACE2 expression in the IPF cohort for SAE (r = 0.812, p < 0.05) and alveolar areas (r = 0.941, p < 0.01). This, to our knowledge, is the first study to compare ACE2, TMPRSS2, and Furin expression in patients with IPF and LAM compared to HC. Descriptive images show that α-SMA and TGF-β1 increase in the IPF and LAM tissue. Our data suggests that patients with ILDs are at a higher risk of developing severe COVID-19 infection and post-COVID-19 interstitial pulmonary fibrosis. Growth factors secreted by the myofibroblasts, and surrounding tissue could further affect COVID-19 adhesion proteins/cofactors and post-COVID-19 interstitial pulmonary fibrosis. Smoking seems to be the major driving factor in patients with IPF.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wenying Lu
- Respiratory Translational Research Group, Department of Laboratory Medicine, School of Health Sciences, College of Health and Medicine, University of Tasmania, Launceston, TAS 7248, Australia; (W.L.); (M.S.E.); (J.M.); (G.H.); (C.C.); (J.L.); (S.J.B.)
- National Health and Medical Research Council (NHMRC) Centre of Research Excellence (CRE) in Pulmonary Fibrosis, Respiratory Medicine and Sleep Unit, Royal Prince Alfred Hospital, Camperdown, NSW 2050, Australia
| | - Mathew Suji Eapen
- Respiratory Translational Research Group, Department of Laboratory Medicine, School of Health Sciences, College of Health and Medicine, University of Tasmania, Launceston, TAS 7248, Australia; (W.L.); (M.S.E.); (J.M.); (G.H.); (C.C.); (J.L.); (S.J.B.)
- National Health and Medical Research Council (NHMRC) Centre of Research Excellence (CRE) in Pulmonary Fibrosis, Respiratory Medicine and Sleep Unit, Royal Prince Alfred Hospital, Camperdown, NSW 2050, Australia
| | - Gurpreet Kaur Singhera
- Department of Anesthesiology, Pharmacology & Therapeutics, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC V6Z 1Y6, Canada; (G.K.S.); (T.L.H.)
- UBC Centre for Heart Lung Innovation, St. Paul’s Hospital, Vancouver, BC V6Z 1Y6, Canada
| | - James Markos
- Respiratory Translational Research Group, Department of Laboratory Medicine, School of Health Sciences, College of Health and Medicine, University of Tasmania, Launceston, TAS 7248, Australia; (W.L.); (M.S.E.); (J.M.); (G.H.); (C.C.); (J.L.); (S.J.B.)
- Department of Respiratory Medicine, Launceston General Hospital, Launceston, TAS 7250, Australia
| | - Greg Haug
- Respiratory Translational Research Group, Department of Laboratory Medicine, School of Health Sciences, College of Health and Medicine, University of Tasmania, Launceston, TAS 7248, Australia; (W.L.); (M.S.E.); (J.M.); (G.H.); (C.C.); (J.L.); (S.J.B.)
- Department of Respiratory Medicine, Launceston General Hospital, Launceston, TAS 7250, Australia
| | - Collin Chia
- Respiratory Translational Research Group, Department of Laboratory Medicine, School of Health Sciences, College of Health and Medicine, University of Tasmania, Launceston, TAS 7248, Australia; (W.L.); (M.S.E.); (J.M.); (G.H.); (C.C.); (J.L.); (S.J.B.)
- Department of Respiratory Medicine, Launceston General Hospital, Launceston, TAS 7250, Australia
| | - Josie Larby
- Respiratory Translational Research Group, Department of Laboratory Medicine, School of Health Sciences, College of Health and Medicine, University of Tasmania, Launceston, TAS 7248, Australia; (W.L.); (M.S.E.); (J.M.); (G.H.); (C.C.); (J.L.); (S.J.B.)
- Department of Respiratory Medicine, Launceston General Hospital, Launceston, TAS 7250, Australia
| | - Samuel James Brake
- Respiratory Translational Research Group, Department of Laboratory Medicine, School of Health Sciences, College of Health and Medicine, University of Tasmania, Launceston, TAS 7248, Australia; (W.L.); (M.S.E.); (J.M.); (G.H.); (C.C.); (J.L.); (S.J.B.)
| | - Glen P. Westall
- Department of Allergy, Immunology and Respiratory Medicine, The Alfred Hospital, Melbourne, VIC 3004, Australia; (G.P.W.); (J.J.)
- Department of Immunology and Pathology, Monash University, Melbourne, VIC 3800, Australia
| | - Jade Jaffar
- Department of Allergy, Immunology and Respiratory Medicine, The Alfred Hospital, Melbourne, VIC 3004, Australia; (G.P.W.); (J.J.)
- Department of Immunology and Pathology, Monash University, Melbourne, VIC 3800, Australia
| | - Rama Satyanarayana Raju Kalidhindi
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Pharmacy, College of Health Professions, North Dakota State University, Fargo, ND 58105, USA; (R.S.R.K.); (N.D.F.); (V.S.)
| | - Nimesha De Fonseka
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Pharmacy, College of Health Professions, North Dakota State University, Fargo, ND 58105, USA; (R.S.R.K.); (N.D.F.); (V.S.)
| | - Venkatachalem Sathish
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Pharmacy, College of Health Professions, North Dakota State University, Fargo, ND 58105, USA; (R.S.R.K.); (N.D.F.); (V.S.)
| | - Tillie L. Hackett
- Department of Anesthesiology, Pharmacology & Therapeutics, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC V6Z 1Y6, Canada; (G.K.S.); (T.L.H.)
- UBC Centre for Heart Lung Innovation, St. Paul’s Hospital, Vancouver, BC V6Z 1Y6, Canada
| | - Sukhwinder Singh Sohal
- Respiratory Translational Research Group, Department of Laboratory Medicine, School of Health Sciences, College of Health and Medicine, University of Tasmania, Launceston, TAS 7248, Australia; (W.L.); (M.S.E.); (J.M.); (G.H.); (C.C.); (J.L.); (S.J.B.)
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +61-3-6324-5434
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Brake SJ, Eapen MS, McAlinden KD, Markos J, Haug G, Larby J, Chia C, Hardikar A, Singhera GK, Hackett TL, Lu W, Sohal SS. SARS-CoV-2 (COVID-19) Adhesion Site Protein Upregulation in Small Airways, Type 2 Pneumocytes, and Alveolar Macrophages of Smokers and COPD – Possible Implications for Interstitial Fibrosis. Int J Chron Obstruct Pulmon Dis 2022; 17:101-115. [PMID: 35046647 PMCID: PMC8761078 DOI: 10.2147/copd.s329783] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/21/2021] [Accepted: 11/14/2021] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Smokers and patients with COPD are highly susceptible to SARS-CoV-2 infection, leading to severe COVID-19. Methods This cross-sectional study involved resected lung tissues from 16 patients with GOLD stage I or II COPD; of which 8 were current smokers COPD (COPD-CS), and 8 ex-smokers COPD (COPD-ES), 7 normal lung function smokers (NLFS), 9 patients with small airways disease (SAD), and 10 were never-smoking normal controls (NC). Immunostaining for ACE2, Furin, and TMPRSS2 was performed and analysed for percent expression in small airway epithelium (SAE) and counts for positively and negatively stained type 2 pneumocytes and alveolar macrophages (AMs) were done using Image ProPlus V7.0. Furthermore, primary small airway epithelial cells (pSAEC) were analysed by immunofluorescence after exposure to cigarette smoke extract (CSE). Results ACE2, Furin, and TMPRSS2 expression significantly increased in SAE and type 2 pneumocytes in all the subjects (except Furin for NLFS) compared to NC (p < 0.001). Similar significance was observed for ACE2 positive AM (p < 0.002), except COPD-ES, which decreased in ACE2 positive AMs (p < 0.003). Total type 2 pneumocytes and AMs significantly increased in the pathological groups compared to NC (p < 0.01), except SAD (p = 0.08). However, AMs are significantly reduced in COPD-ES (p < 0.003). Significant changes were observed for tissue co-expression of Furin and TMPRSS2 with ACE2 in SAE, type 2 pneumocytes and AMs. These markers also negatively correlated with lung function parameters, such as FEV1/FVC % predicted, FEF25-75%, DLCO% predicted. A strong co-localisation and expression for ACE2 (p < 0.0001), Furin (p < 0.01), and TMPRSS2 (p < 0.0001) was observed in pSAEC treated with 1% CSE than controls. Discussion The increased expression of ACE2, TMPRSS2 and Furin, in the SAE, type 2 pneumocytes and AMs of smokers and COPD are detrimental to lung function and proves that these patient groups could be more susceptible to severe COVID-19 infection. Increased type 2 pneumocytes suggest that these patients are vulnerable to developing post-COVID-19 interstitial pulmonary fibrosis or fibrosis in general. There could be a silently developing interstitial pathology in smokers and patients with COPD. This is the first comprehensive study to report such changes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samuel James Brake
- Respiratory Translational Research Group, Department of Laboratory Medicine, School of Health Sciences, College of Health and Medicine, University of Tasmania, Launceston, TAS, 7248, Australia
| | - Mathew Suji Eapen
- Respiratory Translational Research Group, Department of Laboratory Medicine, School of Health Sciences, College of Health and Medicine, University of Tasmania, Launceston, TAS, 7248, Australia
| | - Kielan Darcy McAlinden
- Respiratory Translational Research Group, Department of Laboratory Medicine, School of Health Sciences, College of Health and Medicine, University of Tasmania, Launceston, TAS, 7248, Australia
| | - James Markos
- Respiratory Translational Research Group, Department of Laboratory Medicine, School of Health Sciences, College of Health and Medicine, University of Tasmania, Launceston, TAS, 7248, Australia
- Department of Respiratory Medicine, Launceston General Hospital, Launceston, TAS, 7250, Australia
| | - Greg Haug
- Respiratory Translational Research Group, Department of Laboratory Medicine, School of Health Sciences, College of Health and Medicine, University of Tasmania, Launceston, TAS, 7248, Australia
- Department of Respiratory Medicine, Launceston General Hospital, Launceston, TAS, 7250, Australia
| | - Josie Larby
- Respiratory Translational Research Group, Department of Laboratory Medicine, School of Health Sciences, College of Health and Medicine, University of Tasmania, Launceston, TAS, 7248, Australia
- Department of Respiratory Medicine, Launceston General Hospital, Launceston, TAS, 7250, Australia
| | - Collin Chia
- Respiratory Translational Research Group, Department of Laboratory Medicine, School of Health Sciences, College of Health and Medicine, University of Tasmania, Launceston, TAS, 7248, Australia
- Department of Respiratory Medicine, Launceston General Hospital, Launceston, TAS, 7250, Australia
| | - Ashutosh Hardikar
- Respiratory Translational Research Group, Department of Laboratory Medicine, School of Health Sciences, College of Health and Medicine, University of Tasmania, Launceston, TAS, 7248, Australia
- Department of Cardiothoracic Surgery, Royal Hobart Hospital, Hobart, TAS, 7000, Australia
| | - Gurpreet Kaur Singhera
- Department of Anesthesiology, Pharmacology, and Therapeutics, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
- Department of Medicine, University of British Columbia Centre for Heart Lung Innovation, St. Paul’s Hospital, Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | - Tillie L Hackett
- Department of Anesthesiology, Pharmacology, and Therapeutics, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
- Department of Medicine, University of British Columbia Centre for Heart Lung Innovation, St. Paul’s Hospital, Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | - Wenying Lu
- Respiratory Translational Research Group, Department of Laboratory Medicine, School of Health Sciences, College of Health and Medicine, University of Tasmania, Launceston, TAS, 7248, Australia
| | - Sukhwinder Singh Sohal
- Respiratory Translational Research Group, Department of Laboratory Medicine, School of Health Sciences, College of Health and Medicine, University of Tasmania, Launceston, TAS, 7248, Australia
- Correspondence: Sukhwinder Singh Sohal Respiratory Translational Research Group, Department of Laboratory Medicine, School of Health Sciences, College of Health and Medicine, University of Tasmania, Locked Bag – 1322, Newnham Drive, Launceston, TAS, 7248, AustraliaTel +61 3 6324 5434 Email
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Nanotechnology based advanced therapeutic strategies for targeting interleukins in chronic respiratory diseases. Chem Biol Interact 2021; 348:109637. [PMID: 34506765 DOI: 10.1016/j.cbi.2021.109637] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2021] [Revised: 08/22/2021] [Accepted: 09/06/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Both communicable and non-communicable chronic respiratory conditions have accorded for suffering of millions of people of all ages and stated to be leading cause of death, morbidity, economic and social pressures, and disability-adjusted life-years (DALYs) worldwide. These illnesses impair patient's health and negatively impacts families and society, particularly in low and middle-income countries. Chronic respiratory diseases (CRDs) affect different organs of respiratory system, involving airways, parenchyma, and pulmonary vasculature. As the number of respiratory diseases are exponentially escalating but still the stakeholders are not paying attention towards its serious complications. Currently, the treatment being used primarily focusses only on alleviating symptoms of these illness rather delivering the therapeutic agent at target site for optimal care and/or prevention. Lately, extensive research is being conducted on airways and systemic inflammation, oxidative stress, airway, or parenchymal rehabilitation. From which macrophages, neutrophils, and T cells, as well as structural cells as fibroblasts, epithelial, endothelial, and smooth muscle cells have been found to be active participants that are involved in these chronic respiratory diseases. The pathogenesis of all these chronic respiratory diseases gets caused differently via mediators and proteins, including cytokines, chemokines, growth factors and oxidants. Presently, the target of prescription therapies is to reduce the inflammation of airways and relieve the airway contraction. In all studies, cytokines have been found to play an imperative role in fostering chronic airway inflammation and remodelling. Owing to the limitations of conventional treatments, the current review aims to summarize the current knowledge about the chronic respiratory disease and discuss further about the various conventional methods that can be used for treating this ailment. Additionally, it also highlights and discusses about the advanced drug delivery system that are being used for targeting the interleukins for the treatment of CRDs.
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