Analysis of the asymmetrically expressed Ablim1 locus reveals existence of a lateral plate Nodal-independent left sided signal and an early, left-right independent role for nodal flow

Functions of cilia in cardiac development and disease

Errors in embryonic cardiac development are a leading cause of congenital heart defects (CHDs), including morphological abnormalities of the heart that are often detected after birth. In the past few decades, an emerging role for cilia in the pathogenesis of CHD has been identified, but this topic still largely remains an unexplored area. Mouse forward genetic screens and whole exome sequencing analysis of CHD patients have identified enrichment for de novo mutations in ciliary genes or non-ciliary genes, which regulate cilia-related pathways, linking cilia function to aberrant cardiac development. Key events in cardiac morphogenesis, including left-right asymmetric development of the heart, are dependent upon cilia function. Cilia dysfunction during left-right axis formation contributes to CHD as evidenced by the substantial proportion of heterotaxy patients displaying complex CHD. Cilia-transduced signaling also regulates later events during heart development such as cardiac valve formation, outflow tract septation, ventricle development, and atrioventricular septa formation. In this review, we summarize the role of motile and non-motile (primary cilia) in cardiac asymmetry establishment and later events during heart development.

Decoding the PITX2-controlled genetic network in atrial fibrillation

Atrial fibrillation (AF), the most common sustained cardiac arrhythmia and a major risk factor for stroke, often arises through ectopic electrical impulses derived from the pulmonary veins (PVs). Sequence variants in enhancers controlling expression of the transcription factor PITX2, which is expressed in the cardiomyocytes (CMs) of the PV and left atrium (LA), have been implicated in AF predisposition. Single nuclei multiomic profiling of RNA and analysis of chromatin accessibility combined with spectral clustering uncovered distinct PV- and LA-enriched CM cell states. Pitx2-mutant PV and LA CMs exhibited gene expression changes consistent with cardiac dysfunction through cell type-distinct, PITX2-directed, cis-regulatory grammars controlling target gene expression. The perturbed network targets in each CM were enriched in distinct human AF predisposition genes, suggesting combinatorial risk for AF genesis. Our data further reveal that PV and LA Pitx2-mutant CMs signal to endothelial and endocardial cells through BMP10 signaling with pathogenic potential. This work provides a multiomic framework for interrogating the basis of AF predisposition in the PVs of humans.

In heart failure reactivation of RNA-binding proteins is associated with the expression of 1,523 fetal-specific isoforms

Reactivation of fetal-specific genes and isoforms occurs during heart failure. However, the underlying molecular mechanisms and the extent to which the fetal program switch occurs remains unclear. Limitations hindering transcriptome-wide analyses of alternative splicing differences (i.e. isoform switching) in cardiovascular system (CVS) tissues between fetal, healthy adult and heart failure have included both cellular heterogeneity across bulk RNA-seq samples and limited availability of fetal tissue for research. To overcome these limitations, we have deconvoluted the cellular compositions of 996 RNA-seq samples representing heart failure, healthy adult (heart and arteria), and fetal-like (iPSC-derived cardiovascular progenitor cells) CVS tissues. Comparison of the expression profiles revealed that reactivation of fetal-specific RNA-binding proteins (RBPs), and the accompanied re-expression of 1,523 fetal-specific isoforms, contribute to the transcriptome differences between heart failure and healthy adult heart. Of note, isoforms for 20 different RBPs were among those that reverted in heart failure to the fetal-like expression pattern. We determined that, compared with adult-specific isoforms, fetal-specific isoforms encode proteins that tend to have more functions, are more likely to harbor RBP binding sites, have canonical sequences at their splice sites, and contain typical upstream polypyrimidine tracts. Our study suggests that compared with healthy adult, fetal cardiac tissue requires stricter transcriptional regulation, and that during heart failure reversion to this stricter transcriptional regulation occurs. Furthermore, we provide a resource of cardiac developmental stage-specific and heart failure-associated genes and isoforms, which are largely unexplored and can be exploited to investigate novel therapeutics for heart failure.

Heart failure is a chronic condition in which the heart does not pump enough blood. It has been shown that in heart failure, the adult heart reverts to a fetal-like metabolic state and oxygen consumption. Additionally, genes and isoforms that are expressed in the heart only during fetal development (i.e. not in the healthy adult heart) are turned on in heart failure. However, the underlying molecular mechanisms and the extent to which the switch to a fetal gene program occurs remains unclear. In this study, we initially characterized the differences between the fetal and adult heart transcriptomes (entire set of expressed genes and isoforms). We found that RNA binding proteins (RBPs), a family of genes that regulate multiple aspects of a transcript’s maturation, including transcription, splicing and post-transcriptional modifications, play a central role in the differences between fetal and adult heart tissues. We observed that many RBPs that are only expressed in the heart during fetal development become reactivated in heart failure, resulting in the expression of 1,523 fetal-specific isoforms. These findings suggest that reactivation of fetal-specific RBPs in heart failure drives a transcriptome-wide switch to expression of fetal-specific isoforms; and hence that RBPs could potentially serve as novel therapeutic targets.

Modeling population size independent tissue epigenomes by ChIL-seq with single thin sections

Recent advances in genome‐wide technologies have enabled analyses using small cell numbers of even single cells. However, obtaining tissue epigenomes with cell‐type resolution from large organs and tissues still remains challenging, especially when the available material is limited. Here, we present a ChIL‐based approach for analyzing the diverse cellular dynamics at the tissue level using high‐depth epigenomic data. “ChIL for tissues” allows the analysis of a single tissue section and can reproducibly generate epigenomic profiles from several tissue types, based on the distribution of target epigenomic states, tissue morphology, and number of cells. The proposed method enabled the independent evaluation of changes in cell populations and gene activation in cells from regenerating skeletal muscle tissues, using a statistical model of RNA polymerase II distribution on gene loci. Thus, the integrative analyses performed using ChIL can elucidate in vivo cell‐type dynamics of tissues.

Current Perspectives in Cardiac Laterality

The heart is the first organ to break symmetry in the developing embryo and onset of dextral looping is the first indication of this event. Looping is a complex process that progresses concomitantly to cardiac chamber differentiation and ultimately leads to the alignment of the cardiac regions in their final topology. Generation of cardiac asymmetry is crucial to ensuring proper form and consequent functionality of the heart, and therefore it is a highly regulated process. It has long been known that molecular left/right signals originate far before morphological asymmetry and therefore can direct it. The use of several animal models has led to the characterization of a complex regulatory network, which invariably converges on the Tgf-β signaling molecule Nodal and its downstream target, the homeobox transcription factor Pitx2. Here, we review current data on the cellular and molecular bases of cardiac looping and laterality, and discuss the contribution of Nodal and Pitx2 to these processes. A special emphasis will be given to the morphogenetic role of Pitx2 and to its modulation of transcriptional and functional properties, which have also linked laterality to atrial fibrillation.

Cilia and coordination of signaling networks during heart development

Primary cilia are unique sensory organelles that coordinate a wide variety of different signaling pathways to control cellular processes during development and in tissue homeostasis. Defects in function or assembly of these antenna-like structures are therefore associated with a broad range of developmental disorders and diseases called ciliopathies. Recent studies have indicated a major role of different populations of cilia, including nodal and cardiac primary cilia, in coordinating heart development, and defects in these cilia are associated with congenital heart disease. Here, we present an overview of the role of nodal and cardiac primary cilia in heart development.

A chronological expression profile of gene activity during embryonic mouse brain development

The brain is a functionally complex organ, the patterning and development of which are key to adult health. To help elucidate the genetic networks underlying mammalian brain patterning, we conducted detailed transcriptional profiling during embryonic development of the mouse brain. A total of 2,400 genes were identified as showing differential expression between three developmental stages. Analysis of the data identified nine gene clusters to demonstrate analogous expression profiles. A significant group of novel genes of as yet undiscovered biological function were detected as being potentially relevant to brain development and function, in addition to genes that have previously identified roles in the brain. Furthermore, analysis for genes that display asymmetric expression between the left and right brain hemispheres during development revealed 35 genes as putatively asymmetric from a combined data set. Our data constitute a valuable new resource for neuroscience and neurodevelopment, exposing possible functional associations between genes, including novel loci, and encouraging their further investigation in human neurological and behavioural disorders.

Cilia, calcium and the basis of left-right asymmetry

The clockwise rotation of cilia in the developing mammalian embryo drives a leftward flow of liquid; this genetically regulated biophysical force specifies left-right asymmetry of the mammalian body. How leftward flow is interpreted and information propagated to other tissues is the subject of debate. Four recent papers have shed fresh light on the possible mechanisms.

Left-right asymmetry in the level of active Nodal protein produced in the node is translated into left-right asymmetry in the lateral plate of mouse embryos

Left-right (L-R) asymmetry in the mouse embryo is generated in the node and is dependent on cilia-driven fluid flow, but how the initial asymmetry is transmitted from the node to the lateral plate has remained unknown. We have now identified a transcriptional enhancer (ANE) in the human LEFTY1 gene that exhibits marked L>R asymmetric activity in perinodal cells of the mouse embryo. Dissection of ANE revealed that it is activated in the perinodal cells on the left side by Nodal signaling, suggesting that Nodal activity in the node is asymmetric at a time when Nodal expression is symmetric. Phosphorylated Smad2/3 (pSmad2) indeed manifested an L-R asymmetric distribution at the node, being detected in perinodal cells preferentially on the left side. This asymmetry in pSmad2 distribution was found to be generated not by unidirectional transport of Nodal but rather as a result of L<R asymmetric expression of the Nodal antagonist Cerl2. For various mutant embryos examined, the asymmetry in pSmad2 distribution among the perinodal cells closely matched that in lateral plate mesoderm (LPM). However, autocrine-paracrine Nodal signaling in perinodal cells is dispensable for L-R patterning of LPM, given that its inhibition by expression of dominant negative forms of Smad3 or ALK4 was still associated with normal (left-sided) Nodal expression in LPM. Our results suggest that LPM is the direct target of Nodal secreted by the perinodal cells, and that an L>R distribution of active Nodal in the node is translated into the asymmetry in LPM.