Reducing self-objectification: are dissonance-based methods a possible approach?

Shame and eating disorders symptoms: A meta-analysis

OBJECTIVE

Numerous empirical studies and theoretical models posit that shame is a common experience among individuals across the eating disorder spectrum. In this study we aim to investigate the association between shame and eating disorders symptoms using a meta-analytical approach.

METHOD

In this meta-analysis, we synthesized findings from 195 studies to examine the proposed association between shame and eating disorders symptoms. We looked at the associations with both general eating disorders symptoms and with specific eating disorders symptoms (i.e., anorexic, bulimic, and binge-eating symptoms). Moderation analyses testing for the effect of type of shame, type of eating symptoms, clinical status, quality of the study, age, and gender were conducted.

RESULTS

Shame was significantly associated with a medium to large effect size with all types of eating disorders symptoms (rs between .40 and .52). Body shame (r = .55) and shame around eating (r = .59) were more strongly related with eating disorders pathology. Type of eating disorders symptoms did not moderate the relationship between shame and disturbed eating.

DISCUSSION

Overall, the magnitude of the effect size of the association between shame and eating disorders symptoms is a medium to large one. Body shame and shame around eating seem to be the types of shame most closely tied with eating disorders symptoms, suggesting that directly targeting them in interventions might be highly beneficial. Findings highlight current gaps in the literature (e.g., mostly correlational studies, low quality studies) with implications for future research.

Self-objectification and eating disorder pathology in an ethnically diverse sample of adult women: cross-sectional and short-term longitudinal associations

BACKGROUND

Extensive support exists for objectification theory's original aim of explaining patterns of women's mental health risk through a sociocultural lens. One pathway in objectification theory proposes a mediational role of body shame in the relationship between self-objectification and eating disorder (ED) pathology. Robust past cross-sectional research supports this proposed pathway, but largely in non-Hispanic Caucasian, college-aged samples; this pathway has yet to be empirically demonstrated longitudinally. Given previously documented concerns regarding direct measurement of body shame, we tested two measures of body shame as mediators in both cross-sectional and longitudinal models in a diverse sample of adult women.

METHOD

Utilizing snowball sampling via email, we recruited age and racially/ethnically diverse women predominantly within the United States. Participants completed online surveys assessing self-objectification (operationalized as body surveillance), body shame, and ED pathology at baseline, 3-months and 6-months.

RESULTS

Racial/ethnic minority (n = 139) and non-Hispanic Caucasian (n = 181) adult women completed the measures. Cross-sectional moderated mediation models indicated that racial/ethnic status did not moderate relationships, and that body shame significantly mediated the relation between body surveillance and ED pathology at each time point. The longitudinal model, analyzed using cross-lagged panel analyses, was nonsignificant, as body surveillance failed to predict future body shame when controlling for past body shame.

CONCLUSIONS

Racial/ethnic status did not moderate relations at any time point. Cross-sectional findings replicated past research; the longitudinal model did not support a core mediation pathway linking self-objectification to ED pathology through body shame. Because self-objectification putatively develops earlier in life, future research also should examine these relations in younger diverse samples over a longer time period.

A preliminary trial of an online dissonance-based eating disorder intervention

OBJECTIVE

We conducted a controlled randomized preliminary trial of an expanded online version of the Body Project (n = 46) compared to an assessment-only control condition (n = 36) via a longitudinal design (baseline, postintervention, 2-month follow-up) in a community sample of women (N = 82) with clinical (n = 53) and subclinical (n = 29) eating disorder symptoms.

METHOD

The traditional content of the Body Project was modified to include verbal, written, and behavioral exercises designed to dissuade objectification and maladaptive social comparison and adapted to an online format. Body dissatisfaction, self-esteem, self-objectification, thin-ideal internalization, maladaptive social comparison, trait anxiety, positive affect, negative affect, and eating disorder symptomatology were evaluated in the control and the online expanded Body Project condition at baseline, postintervention, and 2-month follow-up.

RESULTS

A 2 (condition: online expanded Body Project, control) × 3 (time: baseline, postintervention, 2-month follow-up) mixed factorial multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) was conducted to examine statistically significant group differences. As predicted, results indicated a statistically significant condition × time interaction.

CONCLUSIONS

Participants in the expanded online Body Project condition showed significant reductions in eating disorder symptoms and several associated psychological risk correlates from baseline to postintervention and follow-up; contrary to predictions, eating disorder symptoms and risk correlates were not significantly lower in the online expanded Body Project condition compared to the waitlist control condition at postintervention or 2-month follow-up.

Tween Television and Peers: Reinforcing Social Agents in Early Adolescents' Body Surveillance and Self-Objectification

Sociocultural models of body image posit that the media and peers play a role in early adolescents' body dissatisfaction. Introducing a sociocultural perspective on youth sexualization, the present three-wave panel study (N = 968, M_age  = 11.30) sought to examine the role of tween television and peer appearance conversations in early adolescents' body surveillance and self-objectification over time. Special attention was given to the mediating role of media internalization in these relationships. The results showed evidence for a reciprocal interaction between media internalization and peer appearance conversations and identified this reciprocal interaction as the underlying mechanism linking tween television exposure to higher levels of body surveillance and self-objectification 1 year later. Implications for body image and media literacy programs are discussed.

Mechanisms of action during a dissonance-based intervention through 14-month follow-up: The roles of body shame and body surveillance

Objectification theory posits that internalization of societal perspectives about the female body leads to increased body surveillance, which can result in body-related shame and subsequent eating disorder (ED) behaviors. Preliminary research indicates that these associations may be complex in nature. This study examined temporal relations among body surveillance, body shame, and eating disorder symptoms in the context of a dissonance-based body image intervention and through 14-month follow-up. College women (N=285) completed assessments at baseline, post-intervention, and at 8-week, 8-month, and 14-month follow-up. Cross-lag panel analyses revealed that changes in body surveillance significantly mediated the association between body shame and ED symptoms over time. Alternatively, body shame did not change over time and was not a significant mediator of associations between body surveillance and ED symptoms longitudinally. Results indicate that the ameliorative effects of dissonance-based interventions may be due to reductions in body surveillance, rather than decreased body shame.

Risk and maintenance factors for young women's DSM-5 eating disorders

Recent research with young women attending colleges, who are at the average age of eating disorder (ED) onset, established that the ED symptoms are not only prevalent but also relatively stable over the college period. Nonetheless, our knowledge regarding the course and modifiable factors associated with both the onset and maintenance of diagnosable (DSM-5) EDs in this population is limited. The objective of this report was to address these key research gaps. Data were examined from 2713 women who completed assessments of potential vulnerability factors and EDs in the autumn semester of the first (baseline) and fourth (follow-up) college years. A total of 13.1% of the sample met DSM-5 criteria for an ED diagnosis at baseline. At 4-year follow-up, 7.6% of the sample met DSM-5 criteria for an ED, with 67.5% of these cases representing women who had maintained an ED diagnosis from baseline, and 32.5% representing new onset EDs. Elevated appearance-ideal internalization, body dissatisfaction, self-objectification, dieting, and negative affectivity at baseline as well as changes in these factors between assessments all predicted onset and maintenance of DSM-5 EDs at 4-year follow-up. Self-objectification (thinking about and monitoring the body's appearance from an external observer's perspective) was the largest contributor to both ED onset and maintenance. In addition to enhancing our knowledge about the course of young women's (DSM-5) EDs during college, this work highlights potentially similar psychological foci for prevention and treatment efforts. Implications for improving existing preventive and treatment approaches are outlined.

Western Cultural Identification Explains Variations in the Objectification Model for Eating Pathology Across Australian Caucasians and Asian Women

Objective: To assess differences in trait objectifying measures and eating pathology between Australian Caucasians and Asian women living in Australia and in Hong Kong with high and low levels of western cultural identification (WCI) and to see if exposure to objectifying images had an effect on state-objectification. A further aim was to assess using path analyses whether an extended version of the objectification model, including thin-ideal internalization, differed depending on the level of WCI. Method: A total of 424 participants comprising 162 Australian Caucasians and 262 Asians (n = 183 currently residing in Australia and n = 79 living in Hong Kong) took part in the study. Of the overall Asian sample, 133 individuals were classified as high-WCI and 129 participants as low-WCI. Participants were randomly allocated into one of two conditions, presenting either objectifying images of attractive and thin Asian and Caucasian female models (objectification group, n = 204), or showing neutral images of objects (e.g., chairs, tables; control group, n = 220). Subsequently, participants were asked to complete a series of questionnaires assessing objectification processes and eating pathology. Results: Findings revealed that the Caucasian group presented with significantly higher internalization and body surveillance scores than either of the two Asian groups and also revealed higher scores on trait-self-objectification than the low-WCI Asian sample. As regards to the effects of objectifying images on state self-objectification, we found that ratings were higher after exposure to women than to control objects for all groups. Finally, multi-group analyses revealed that our revised objectification model functioned equally across the Caucasian and the high-WCI Asian group, but differed between the Caucasian and the low-WCI Asian group. Conclusion: Our findings outline that individuals with varying levels of WCI might respond differently to self-objectification processes. Levels of WCI should therefore be taken into consideration when working with women from different cultural backgrounds.

Body image and face image in Asian American and white women: Examining associations with surveillance, construal of self, perfectionism, and sociocultural pressures

Asian American women experience sociocultural pressures that could place them at increased risk for experiencing body and face dissatisfaction. Asian American and White women completed measures of appearance evaluation, overweight preoccupation, face satisfaction, face dissatisfaction frequency, perfectionism, surveillance, interdependent and independent self-construal, and perceived sociocultural pressures. In Study 1 (N=182), Asian American women were more likely than White women to report low appearance evaluation (24% vs. 12%; d=-0.50) and to be sometimes-always dissatisfied with the appearance of their eyes (38% vs. 6%; d=0.90) and face overall (59% vs. 34%; d=0.41). In Study 2 (N=488), they were more likely to report low appearance evaluation (36% vs. 23%; d=-0.31) and were less likely to report high eye appearance satisfaction (59% vs. 88%; d=-0.84). The findings highlight the importance of considering ethnic differences when assessing body and face image.

Objectified Body Consciousness, Body Image Discomfort, and Depressive Symptoms Among Breast Cancer Survivors in Taiwan

The literature comparing the effects of breast reconstructive surgery, breast-conserving surgery, and mastectomy on body image and mental health yields conflicting results. Objectified body consciousness may be a factor that influences the psychological well-being of breast cancer survivors. Women with average time of 19 months from breast cancer surgery were approached in outpatient clinics to participate in our study. Using structural equation modeling, we tested and verified a model that included self-reported objectified body consciousness, cancer-related body image discomfort, and depression among 193 breast cancer survivors in Taiwan. Our results provided support for the hypothesized indirect relation of objectified body consciousness with depression through the mediating role of cancer-related body image discomfort. Specifically, women with higher objectified body consciousness levels reported more cancer-related body image discomfort, which in turn was related to greater depression. Additionally, the degree of this mediation relationship across surgery types was different. These findings are significant to clinicians who should be cognizant of the potential role of objectified body consciousness in promoting cancer-related body image discomfort and depression in breast cancer survivors. Encouraging women to clarify their perceptions of their new bodies and providing care combined with psychological counseling after breast cancer surgery are critical.