The immediate global responses of Aliivibrio salmonicida to iron limitations

Glutamicibacter sp. ZY1 antagonizes pathogenic Vibrio parahaemolyticus via iron competition

Probiotics are prior agents for treating bacterial infection with advantages of inhibiting pathogenic bacteria and improving immune responses of hosts, thus increasing the survival rate of cultured animals. In this study, one Vibrio parahaemolyticus YDE17 pathogenic to shrimp and its antagonist Glutamicibacter sp. ZY1 were screened, and ZY1 showed stable inhibitory effects on diverse Vibrio spp., especially V. parahaemolyticus. ZY1 secreted inhibitory substances into supernatant, and the activity of inhibitory substances did not change after being treated under different temperatures, proteinase K, and pH (6-10), which indicated that the inhibitory substances might be small molecules, which led us to trace the siderophore production. The siderophore production of YDE17 co-incubated with the cell-free supernatant of ZY1 was greater than that of YDE17 alone, which indicated that the cell-free supernatant of ZY1 created iron-limiting conditions for YDE17. This finding was confirmed by iron supplementation assays, in which the inhibitory activity of the cell-free supernatant of ZY1 on YDE17 as well as the siderophore production of YDE17 decreased in the presence of FeCl3. The effect of iron on inhibition was further confirmed by in vivo infection. The relative percent survival of ZY1 to shrimp challenged by YDE17 was 83.3%, but the survival rates of shrimp challenged with YDE17/ZY1/FeCl3 were similar to that of YDE17, both of which were significantly lower than the 70% survival rate of shrimps simultaneously challenged by ZY1/YDE17. Our study offers a new probiotic resource to control vibriosis, which works through iron competition with the opportunistic pathogens of Vibrio spp.IMPORTANCEBacteria belonging to Vibrio spp., especially Vibrio parahaemolyticus, are important opportunistic pathogens infecting a wide range of hosts including fish, shrimp, shellfish, and crab. Antibiotics are effective but show the disadvantages of antibiotic generation, microecology destruction, and biological toxicology; thus, new treatments of Vibrio infection are urgently recommended. In our present study, Glutamicibacter sp. ZY1, belonging to the phylum Actinomycetes, was selected and showed high inhibitory activity to inhibit V. parahaemolyticus pathogenic to shrimp. Glutamicibacter sp. ZY1 antagonized V. parahaemolyticus YDE17 through producing siderophore to compete for iron, based on the results of both in vitro and in vivo experiments under different iron levels. This study offers a new strategy to control Vibrio infection in aquaculture.

Detection of Fur, AmoA and pvcAB genes in Aeromonas hydrophila isolated from aquatic organisms and impact on bacterial growth under different iron concentrations

ABSTRACT Infection caused by Aeromonas brings great harm to fish farming. Among the factors associated with bacterial pathogenesis, iron uptake can contribute to the survival and virulence of bacteria within hosts. The aim of this study was to check the presence of genes related to iron uptake in Aeromonas hydrophila deriving from aquatic organisms in the São Francisco Valley and associate the presence of these genes with the ability to grow in media containing different concentrations of iron. The DNAs of 41 isolates were extracted and used in PCRs to verify the presence of the Fur, AmoA and pvcAB genes related to iron uptake. The growth of the isolates belonging to different genetic profiles was verified in culture media containing different iron concentrations. Two isolates were positive for the presence of the Fur gene, seven for the AmoA gene and two for the pvcAB gene. The growth test showed that the low availability of iron did not interfere in the growth of the isolates, nor in the isolate that did not contain any of the genes evaluated in this study, suggesting that the iron uptake’s mechanisms of the tested isolates may be related to other genes and proteins.

Iron uptake mechanisms as key virulence factors in bacterial fish pathogens

This review summarizes the current knowledge about iron uptake systems in bacterial fish pathogens and their involvement in the infective process. Like most animal pathogens, fish pathogens have evolved sophisticated iron uptake mechanisms some of which are key virulence factors for colonization of the host. Among these systems, siderophore production and heme uptake systems are the best studied in fish pathogenic bacteria. Siderophores like anguibactin or piscibactin, have been described in Vibrio and Photobacterium pathogens as key virulence factors to cause disease in fish. In many other bacterial fish pathogens production of siderophores was demonstrated but the compounds were not yet chemically characterized and their role in virulence was not determined. The role of heme uptake in virulence was not yet clearly elucidated in fish pathogens although there exist evidence that these systems are expressed in fish tissues during infection. The relationship of other systems, like Fe(II) transporters or the use of citrate as iron carrier, with virulence is also unclear. Future trends of research on all these iron uptake mechanisms in bacterial fish pathogens are also discussed.

Inhibition of Virulence-Related Traits in Pseudomonas syringae pv. actinidiae by Gunpowder Green Tea Extracts

Green tea is a widely-consumed healthy drink produced from the leaves of Camellia sinensis. It is renowned for its antioxidant and anticarcinogenic properties, but also displays significant antimicrobial activity against numerous human pathogens. Here we analyzed the antimicrobial activity of Gunpowder green tea against Pseudomonas syringae pv. actinidiae (Psa), the agent that causes kiwifruit bacterial canker. At the phenotypic level, tea extracts strongly inhibited Psa growth and swimming motility, suggesting it could reduce Psa epiphytic survival during plant colonization. The loss of bacterial virulence-related traits following treatment with tea extracts was also investigated by large-scale transcriptome analysis, which confirmed the in vitro phenotypes and revealed the induction of adaptive responses in the treated bacteria allowing them to cope with iron deficiency and oxidative stress. Such molecular changes may account for the ability of Gunpowder green tea to protect kiwifruit against Psa infection.

Classification and structural insight into vibriolysin-like proteases of Vibrio pathogenicity

Vibriolysin-like proteases (VLPs) are important virulence agents in the arsenal of Vibrio causing instant cytotoxic effects during infection. Most of Vibrio secreted VLPs show serious pathogenicity, while some species of Vibrio with VLPs are non-pathogenic, like Vibrio tasmaniensis and Vibrio pacinii. To investigate the relation between VLPs and Vibrio pathogenicity, one phylogenetic tree of VLPs was constructed and compared consensus sequences at the N-terminus of VLPs. Based on these results, VLPs were defined into nine phylogenetic clades. Pathogenicity analysis of Vibrio showed that Vibrio species with VLPs III, VI, VII or VIII are serious pathogenic bacteria, while species with VLPs I, II, IV or IX are opportunistic pathogens. Multiple sequence alignment showed that the N-terminal 5-16 nucleotides of each clade are highly conservative. Topological analysis of VLPs exhibited the structural differences in N-terminal regions of each VLP clade. These results suggest that structure of N-terminus might play a key role in the pathogenicity of VLPs. Our findings give new insights into the classification of VLPs and the relationship between VLPs and Vibrio pathogenicity.

Distribution of siderophore gene systems on a Vibrionaceae phylogeny: Database searches, phylogenetic analyses and evolutionary perspectives

Siderophores are small molecules synthesized and secreted by bacteria and fungi to scavenge iron. Extracellular ferri-siderohores are recognized by cognate receptors on the cell surface for transport over membranes. Several siderophore systems from Vibrionaceae representatives are known and well understood, e.g., the molecular structure of the siderophore, the biosynthesis gene cluster and pathway, and the gene expression pattern. Less is known about how these systems are distributed among the ~140 Vibrionaceae species, and which evolutionary processes contributed to the present-day distribution. In this work, we compiled existing knowledge on siderophore biosynthesis systems and siderophore receptors from Vibrionaceae and used phylogenetic analyses to investigate their organization, distribution, origin and evolution. Through literature searches, we identified nine different siderophore biosynthesis systems and thirteen siderophore receptors in Vibrionaceae. Homologs were identified by BLAST searches, and the results were mapped onto a Vibrionaceae phylogeny. We identified 81 biosynthetic systems distributed in 45 Vibrionaceae species and 16 unclassified Vibrionaceae strains, and 409 receptors in 89 Vibrionaceae species and 49 unclassified Vibrionaceae strains. The majority of taxa are associated with at least one type of siderophore biosynthesis system, some (e.g., aerobactin and vibrioferrin) of which are widely distributed in the family, whereas others (i.e., bisucaberin and vibriobactin) are found in one lineage. Cognate receptors are found more widespread. Phylogenetic analysis of three siderophore systems (piscibactin, vibrioferrin and aerobactin) show that their present-day distribution can be explained by an old insertion into Vibrionaceae, followed mainly by stable vertical evolution and extensive loss, and some cases of horizontal gene transfers. The present work provides an up to date overview of the distribution of siderophore-based iron acquisition systems in Vibrionaceae, and presents phylogenetic analysis of these systems. Our results suggest that the present-day distribution is a result of several evolutionary processes, such as old and new gene acquisitions, gene loss, and both vertical and horizontal gene transfers.

Construction of a fur null mutant and RNA-sequencing provide deeper global understanding of the Aliivibrio salmonicida Fur regulon

BACKGROUND

The ferric uptake regulator (Fur) is a transcription factor and the main regulator of iron acquisition in prokaryotes. When bound to ferric iron, Fur recognizes its DNA binding site and generally executes its function by repressing transcription of its target genes. Due to its importance in virulence, the Fur regulon is well studied for several model bacteria. In our previous work, we used computational predictions and microarray to gain insights into Fur-regulation in Aliivibrio salmonicida, and have identified a number of genes and operons that appear to be under direct control of Fur. To provide a more accurate and deeper global understanding of the biological role of Fur we have now generated an A. salmonicida fur knock-out strain and used RNA-sequencing to compare gene expression between the wild-type and fur null mutant strains.

RESULTS

An A. salmonicida fur null mutant strain was constructed. Biological assays demonstrate that deletion of fur results in loss of fitness, with reduced growth rates, and reduced abilities to withstand low-iron conditions, and oxidative stress. When comparing expression levels in the wild-type and the fur null mutant we retrieved 296 differentially expressed genes distributed among 18 of 21 functional classes of genes. A gene cluster encoding biosynthesis of the siderophore bisucaberin represented the highest up-regulated genes in the fur null mutant. Other highly up-regulated genes all encode proteins important for iron acquisition. Potential targets for the RyhB sRNA was predicted from the list of down-regulated genes, and significant complementarities were found between RyhB and mRNAs of the fur, sodB, cysN and VSAL_I0422 genes. Other sRNAs with potential functions in iron homeostasis were identified.

CONCLUSION

The present work provides by far the most comprehensive and deepest understanding of the Fur regulon in A. salmonicida to date. Our data also contribute to a better understanding of how Fur plays a key role in iron homeostasis in bacteria in general, and help to show how Fur orchestrates iron uptake when iron levels are extremely low.

Transcriptomic analysis of the response of Pseudomonas fluorescens to epigallocatechin gallate by RNA-seq

Epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG) is a main constituent of green tea polyphenols that are widely used as food preservatives and are considered to be safe for consumption. However, the underlying antimicrobial mechanism of EGCG and the bacterial response to EGCG are not clearly understood. In the present study, a genome-wide transcriptional analysis of a typical spoilage bacterium, Pseudomonas fluorescens that responded to EGCG was performed using RNA-seq technology. A total of 26,365,414 and 23,287,092 clean reads were generated from P. fluorescens treated with or without 1 mM EGCG and the clean reads were aligned to the reference genome. Differential expression analysis revealed 291 upregulated genes and 134 downregulated genes and the differentially expressed genes (DEGs) were verified using RT-qPCR. Most of the DGEs involved in iron uptake, antioxidation, DNA repair, efflux system, cell envelope and cell-surface component synthesis were significantly upregulated by EGCG treatment, while most genes associated with energy production were downregulated. These transcriptomic changes are likely to be adaptive responses of P. fluorescens to iron limitation and oxidative stress, as well as DNA and envelope damage caused by EGCG. The expression of specific genes encoding the extra-cytoplasmic function sigma factor (PvdS, RpoE and AlgU) and the two-component sensor histidine kinase (BaeS and RpfG) were markedly changed by EGCG treatment, which may play important roles in regulating the stress responses of P. fluorescens to EGCG. The present data provides important insights into the molecular action of EGCG and the possible cross-resistance mediated by EGCG on P. fluorescens, which may ultimately contribute to the optimal application of green tea polyphenols in food preservation.

Changes in the Vibrio harveyi Cell Envelope Subproteome During Permanence in Cold Seawater

Previous work demonstrated that physiological, morphological, and gene expression changes as well as the time-dependent entry into the viable but not culturable (VBNC) state are used by Vibrio species to survive and cope with diverse stress conditions including seasonal temperature downshifts and starvation. To learn more about the nature and specific contribution of membrane proteins to cell adaptation and survival, we analyzed variations in the protein composition of cell envelope and related them to morphological and physiological changes that were taking place during the long-term permanence of Vibrio harveyi in seawater microcosm at 4 °C. We found that after 21 days of permanence, nearly all population (ca. 99 %) of V. harveyi acquired the VBNC phenotype. Although the size of V. harveyi cells gradually decreased during the incubation time, we found that this morphological change was not directly related to their entry into the VBNC state. Our proteomic study revealed that the level of membrane proteins playing key roles in cellular transport, maintenance of cell structure, and in bioenergetics processes remained unchanged along starvation at low temperature, thus suggesting that V. harveyi might need these proteins for the long-term survival and/or for the resuscitation process. On a contrary, the level of two proteins, elongation factor Tu (EF-TU) and bacterioferritin, greatly increased reaching the maximal values by the end of the incubation period. We further discuss the above data with respect to the putative roles likely exerted by membrane proteins during transition to and maintaining of the VBNC state.

Quantitative proteomic analysis of cell envelope preparations under iron starvation stress in Aeromonas hydrophila

Background

Iron homeostasis is an essential process over the entire lives of both hosts and bacterial pathogens, and also plays roles in many other metabolic functions. Currently, knowledge is limited on the iron scavenging mechanism of the cell envelope in the aquatic pathogen, Aeromonas hydrophila. To understand the iron homeostasis mechanism in A. hydrophila, a dimethyl labelling based quantitative proteomics method was used to compare the differential expression of cell envelope proteins under iron starvation.

Results

A total of 542 cell envelope proteins were identified by LC-MS/MS, with 66 down-regulated and 104 up-regulated proteins. Bioinformatics analysis showed that outer membrane siderophores, heme and iron receptors, periplasmic iron binding proteins, inner membrane ABC transporters and H⁺-ATP synthase subunits increased in abundance while iron-cluster proteins, electron transport chain and redox proteins were down-regulated. Further q-PCR validation, in vivo addition of exogenous metabolites, and an enzyme inhibition assay revealed that redox, the energy generation process, and ATP synthase elevated the susceptibility of A. hydrophila to iron starvation.

Conclusions

Our study demonstrates that the redox and energy generation process, and ATP synthase in A. hydrophila may play critical roles in iron acquisition under conditions of iron-stress. An understanding of the iron scavenging mechanism may be helpful for the development of strategies for preventing and treating A. hydrophila infection.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12866-016-0769-5) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.