Glycyrrhiza glabra HPLC fractions: identification of Aldehydo Isoophiopogonone and Liquirtigenin having activity against multidrug resistant bacteria

Characterization of soil-derived Bacillus subtilis metabolites against breast cancer: In vitro and in silico studies

Breast cancer remains one of the most challenging and widespread cancers among women globally that warrants further investigations for novel agents to minimize side effects and disease recurrence. In this study, a soil bacterium was isolated and 16S rRNA nucleotide sequence homology and resultant phylogenetic tree analysis confirmed Bacillus subtills (CP020102.1). The crude extract of bacterial strain showed cytotoxicity (cell viability 63.1%) against human breast cancer cell line MCF-7 through MTT assay followed by further analysis through preparative HPLC showing 29 active fractions. Among all fractions, fraction 16 demonstrated cytotoxic potential as low as 54.03%. The spectral data of LC-MS, NMR and FTIR identified the bioactive compound as isatin based bacterial metabolite (Z)-N'-(1-hexyl-2-oxoindolin-3-ylidene)-4-methylbenzenesulfonohydrazide. This bioactive compound upon in silico docking analysis with HER2 showed a binding energy of -8.8 kcal/mol. ADMET calculations determined the pharmacokinetic behavior of the compound revealing acceptable distribution and absorption profiles. The drug-likeness of the compound was confirmed based on the Lipinski rule with zero violations. Molecular dynamic simulation (MDS) was also performed for 100 ns and a stable RMSF plot was observed. The results strongly propose that the identified compound has immense potential to be considered a drug candidate to develop further against human breast cancer.

Effects of solvent extraction on the phytoconstituents and in vitro antioxidant activity properties of leaf extracts of the two selected medicinal plants from Malawi

This study evaluated and compared the phytochemical and antioxidant properties of the solvent extracts of Azadirachta indica A. Juss and Vernonia amygdalina Del leaves. Methanolic and aqueous extracts showed high (P ≤ 0.05) extract yields (in %), compared to chloroform and ethyl acetate extracts from both V. amygdalina and A. indica leaves. The study exhibited high phytochemical content in methanol and aqueous extracts compared to chloroform and ethyl acetate extracts, confirming the potential for medicinal use. V. amygdalina methanol and aqueous extracts had higher (P ≤ 0.05) total phenolic content (TPC), in mg GAE/gDW, (158.810±0.846 and 217.883±0.265, respectively) than chloroform (37.574±0.118) and ethyl acetate (104.758±0.236) but higher ethyl acetate content in A. indica extracts. Low polar solvents extracted high (P ≤ 0.05) total flavonoids, in mgQE/gDW, (367.051±0.858 and 149.808±0.009) compared to high polar solvents (14.863±0.071 and 54.226±0.014 ) in V. amygdalina while as in A. indica leaf extracts, low polar solvents showed high TFC ( 658.469±3.451 and 275.288±10.490) compared to high polar solvents (26.312±0.063 and 48.858±0.063) respectively. In vitro total antioxidant capacity, in mg/g, was higher in polar solvents than in low-polar solvents, ranging from 34.300±1.784 to 121.015±6.839 for A. indica ethyl acetate and methanolic extracts. A strong correlation between TPC and tannic acid content was observed, except in A. indica methanolic extracts of A. indica. Ferric reducing power was high, except for V. amygdalina chloroform and methanol leaf extracts, which were lower (P≤ 0.05) than that of the standard ascorbic acid. The study revealed that high polar solvents, such as methanol and water, are more efficient in the extraction of antioxidants from A. indica but lower in V. amygdalina extracts. High phytochemical content and antioxidative capacity could be significant in treating various diseases in humans.

Metabolite profiling and nephroprotective potential of Glycyrrhiza glabra L. roots against cisplatin-induced nephrotoxicity in vitro and in vivo

OBJECTIVES

The present study was conducted to investigate the phytochemical analysis and demonstrate the nephroprotective potential of root extract of Glycyrrhiza glabra L. against cisplatin (CP) -induced nephrotoxicity in vitro and in vivo.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The HPTLC analysis and UPLC-MS were carried out for standardizing and metabolite profiling of methanolic extract of roots of G. glabra (GGE). Further, in vitro studies were conducted in human embryonic kidney (HEK)-293 cells to evaluate the cytotoxicity and anti-oxidant potential of GGE with CP as a toxicant and ascorbic acid as standard. Also, in vivo nephroprotective potential at doses of 31.5, 63, and 126 mg/kg/day on CP (6 mg/kg, bw, IP) induced nephrotoxicity was evaluated on rodents.

RESULTS

Phytochemical analysis by HPTLC and UPLC-MS revealed the presence of glycyrrhizin, glabridin, and liquiritin along with other bioactive constituents. The in vitro assay of GGE showed significant (P<0.001 nephroprotective, cellular anti-oxidant potential and improvement in morphological changes induced by CP. Further, administration of CP caused significant (P<0.001) elevation in biochemical, inflammatory, oxidative stress, caspase-3, as well as histopathological changes in kidney tissue. Pre-treatment with GGE attenuated the elevated biochemical markers significantly, improved histopathological damage, and showed a comparable result to ascorbic acid and α-ketoanalogue.

CONCLUSION

Present study concluded the nephroprotective potential of GGE which supports the traditional claim of G. glabra roots in various kidney and its related disorders. The nephroprotective activity may be attributed to its anti-oxidant, anti-inflammatory, and anti-apoptosis effects. Thus, it holds promising potential in management of nephrotoxicity.

Bioactive Compounds, Antioxidant, Anti-Inflammatory, Anti-Cancer, and Toxicity Assessment of Tribulus terrestris-In Vitro and In Vivo Studies

Tribulus terrestris L. belongs to the family Zygophyllaceae and integral part of various ancient medicinal systems including Chinese, Indian, and European to combat various health ailments. The aim of the present study was to assess the phytochemical constituents, in vitro antioxidant activity using DPPH, FRAP, and H2O2 assays, in vitro anticancer activity using MTT assay, and in vitro and in vivo anti-inflammatory properties of T. terrestris. The acute and sub-acute toxicity of extracts exhibiting most biological potential was examined using murine models. Liquid-liquid partitioning followed by RP-HPLC sub-fraction of crude extract was performed. After that, ESI-MS/MS analysis was done for the timid identification of bioactive metabolites responsible for bioactivities of sub-fractions and HPLC analysis to quantify the compounds using external standards. Among all extracts, T. terrestris methanol extract was noted to hold maximum phenolic (341.3 mg GAE/g) and flavonoid (209 mg QE/g) contents, antioxidant activity in DPPH (IC50 71.4 µg/mL), FRAP (35.3 mmol/g), and H2O2 (65.3% inhibition) assays, anti-inflammatory activities in vitro at 400 µg/mL (heat-induced hemolysis, % inhibition 68.5; egg albumin denaturation, % inhibition 75.6%; serum albumin denaturation, % inhibition 80.2), and in vivo at 200 mg/kg (carrageenan-induced paw edema, % inhibition 69.3%; formaldehyde-induced paw edema, % inhibition 71.3%) and anticancer activity against breast cancer cell (MCF-7) proliferation (IC50 74.1 µg/mL). Acute and sub-acute toxicity studies recorded with no change in body weight, behavior, hematological, serum, and histopathological parameters in treated rats with T. terrestris methanol extracts when compared to control group. Fraction B obtained through liquid-liquid partitioning resulted in more bioactive potential as compared to the parent methanol extract. RP-HPLC analysis of fraction B resulted with four sub-fractions (TBTMF1-TBTMF4), wherein TBTMF3 delineated notable bioactive capabilities as compared to other fractions and parent methanol extract. ESI-MS/MS analysis of TBTMF3 resulted with tentative identification of myricetin, rutin, liquitrigenin, physcion, and protodioscin. It can be stated that T. terrestris is a potential bearing herb and findings of current study further verify the claims made in ancient medicinal systems. However, after investigation of each identified compound, it must be considered for drug discovery.

Toxicity, Antioxidant Activity, and Phytochemicals of Basil (Ocimum basilicum L.) Leaves Cultivated in Southern Punjab, Pakistan

Basil (Ocimum basilicum L.) is one of the most common aromatic herbs, a rich source of bioactive compounds, and is used extensively to add aroma and flavor to food. The leaves, both in fresh and dried form, are used as a culinary ingredient in different cultures. O. basilicum is also famous for its therapeutic potential and preservation effects. The present study investigated the cytotoxicity of basil at three different growth stages (GS), i.e., GS-1 (58 days of growth), GS-2 (69 days of growth), and GS-3 (93 days of growth) using the brine shrimp lethality assay. The results revealed that cytotoxicity was influenced by GS and the concentration of extracts. Aqueous extracts of basil at a concentration of 10 to 1000 µg/mL did not show notable toxicity. The lowest mortality rate, i.e., 8.9%, was recorded for GS-2 at the highest tested dose of basil extracts. The mortality rate at GS-1, GS-2, and GS-3 was found to be 26.7 ± 3.34%, 8.91 ± 0.10%, and 16.7 ± 0.34%, respectively, at 1000 µg/mL. GS-2 basil powder with the lowest toxicological risk was extracted with different solvents, viz., n-hexane, dichloromethane, ethanol, and water. The highest concentration of plant secondary metabolites including total phenolic acid, flavonoids, and tannin content was observed in ethanol extracts. Ethanol extracts also exhibited the highest antioxidant activity in DPPH, FRAP and H₂O₂ assays. LC-ESI-MS/MS analysis presented ethanol extracts of basil as a promising source of known health-promoting and therapeutic compounds such as rosmarinic acid, ellagic acid, catechin, liquiritigenin, and umbelliferone. The results suggest basil, a culinary ingredient, as a potential source of bioactive compounds which may offer an array of health promoting and therapeutic properties.

Antiinflammatory and Anticancer Properties of Grewia asiatica Crude Extracts and Fractions: A Bioassay-Guided Approach

The study was an extension of our earlier work on antiinflammatory and anticancer properties of G. asiatica fruit. We aimed to develop a bioassay guided multistep purification technique for producing bioactive fractions of G. asiatica crude extracts. Dried fruit powder was sequentially fractionated with 100% dichloromethane, 100% methanol (MeOH), and 50% MeOH. Active extracts were subjected to liquid-liquid partitioning followed by subfractionation using RP-HPLC. Antioxidant, antiinflammatory, and anticancer activities of the fruit extracts, and their potent fractions were evaluated in vitro, while identification of compounds from the bioactive fractions was performed by ESI-MS/MS analysis. The amount of the identified compounds present was confirmed using external standards adopting a simple, accurate, and rapid analytical HPLC method. The results showed that 100% and 50% MeOH extracts possessed bioactivity; one of which (the 50% MeOH extract) displayed potent activity in all in vitro bioassays. MeOH extract (50%) derived fraction C and hydroalcoholic fraction 5 (GAHAF5) were observed to possess higher antioxidant, antiinflammatory, and in vitro anticancer activity. IC₅₀ of GAHAF5 against MCF-7, HEp-2, and NCI-H522 cancer cells was recorded as 26.2, 51.4, and 63 μg/mL, respectively. ESI-MS/MS and HPLC analysis identified catechin, chlorogenic acid, caffeic acid, and morin as potential bioactive compounds in the GAHAF5 fraction with concentrations of 1230, 491, 957, and 130 μg/g, respectively. The findings indicated that G. asiatica bioactive fractions possessed antiinflammatory activity in vitro and were cytotoxic against breast cancer, lung cancer, and laryngeal cancer cell lines.

Bioactive Constituents and Toxicological Evaluation of Selected Antidiabetic Medicinal Plants of Saudi Arabia

The purpose of this review is to summarize the available antidiabetic medicinal plants in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia with its phytoconstituents and toxicological findings supporting by the latest literature. Required data about medicinal plants having antidiabetic activities and growing in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia were searched/collected from the online databases including Wiley, Google, PubMed, Google Scholar, ScienceDirect, and Scopus. Keywords used in search are in vivo antidiabetic activities, flora of Saudi Arabia, active ingredients, toxicological evaluations, and medicinal plants. A total of 50 plant species belonging to 27 families were found in the flora of Saudi Arabia. Dominant family was found Lamiaceae with 5 species (highest) followed by Moraceae with 4 species. β-Amyrin, β-sitosterol, stigmasterol, oleanolic acid, ursolic acid, rutin, chlorogenic acid, quercetin, and kaempferol are the very common bioactive constituents of these selected plant species. This paper has presented a list of antidiabetic plants used in the treatment of diabetes mellitus. Bioactive antidiabetic phytoconstituents which showed that these plants have hypoglycemic effects and highly recommended for further pharmacological purposes and to isolate/identify antidiabetes mellitus (anti-DM) active agents also need to investigate the side effects of active ingredients.

Pharmacological Effects and Underlying Mechanisms of Licorice-Derived Flavonoids

Glycyrrhizae Radix et Rhizoma is the most frequently prescribed natural medicine in China and has been used for more than 2,000 years. The flavonoids of licorice have garnered considerable attention in recent decades due to their structural diversity and myriad pharmacological effects, especially as novel therapeutic agents against inflammation and cancer. Although many articles have been published to summarize different pharmacological activities of licorice in recent years, the systematic summary for flavonoid components is not comprehensive. Therefore, in this review, we summarized the pharmacological and mechanistic data from recent researches on licorice flavonoids and their bioactive components.

β-Glycyrrhetinic acid inhibits the bacterial growth and biofilm formation by supragingival plaque commensals

β-Glycyrrhetinic acid (BGA) is a natural antibacterial agent. Previous studies reported that BGA has antibacterial effects against several bacteria. This study evaluated the effects of BGA on the regulation of supragingival plaque bacteria. First, the minimum inhibitory concentrations (MICs) of BGA against oral bacteria were measured. Next, the minimum concentrations for inhibition of biofilm formation were evaluated against Streptococcus mutans and Streptococcus sobrinus, possessing insoluble glucan synthesis abilities. The MICs of biofilm formation by these bacteria ranged from 1/8 to 2× MIC. Furthermore, the inhibition effects of BGA against the coaggregation of Porphyromonas gingivalis and Streptococcus gordonii were evaluated. BGA at 32 or 64 μg/mL inhibited the coaggregation of these bacteria after a 30 min incubation. Lastly, the inhibition effects of BGA against human supragingival plaque bacteria were evaluated. Human supragingival plaque samples were obtained from 12 healthy donors. The inhibition effects of BGA against biofilm formation by these plaque bacteria were evaluated. Of 12 samples, the biofilm formation by 11 was significantly attenuated by 128-256 μg/mL of BGA. The number of colony forming units in these biofilms was also significantly attenuated. In conclusion, it was revealed that BGA inhibits the growth and biofilm formation of bacteria, furthermore, the same effect was confirmed with supragingival plaque bacteria. BGA is a good candidate for a natural agent that prevents the outbreak and progression of periodontal disease because it suppresses not only the growth and biofilm formation of bacteria, but also the coaggregation of P. gingivalis with plaque bacteria.

Feeding Preference of Altica deserticola (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae: Alticinae) for Leaves of Glycyrrhiza inflata and G. uralensis

A leaf-disc-test method was used under controlled laboratory conditions to determine the feeding preference of Altica deserticola Latreille (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae) on leaves of two liquorice species, Glycyrrhiza inflata Batalin and G. uralensis Fisch. ex DC. Leaf hardness and thickness, cuticle thickness, and nitrogen and tannin contents were compared between the two liquorices to explore their feeding resistance to A. deserticola. The larvae ate only G. uralensis leaves, while the adults fed on the leaves of both species but preferred those of G. inflata. The leaf hardness and thickness and cuticle thickness, as well as the nitrogen, total tannins, tannin chemicals contents in leaves, were significantly greater in G. inflata than in G. uralensis. The larvae having smaller chewing mouthparts could not feed on hard leaves with thick cuticle on both sides. The thicker cuticle and harder texture of G. inflata blades may be important physical traits for effective defence against larval phytophagy, while the higher tannin content in its leaves may be an important chemical trait determining their feeding preference. The larger adults, having stronger mouthparts, could consume nitrogen-richer G. inflata leaves to obtain the energy needed for flight and reproduction.

Syzygium cumini(L.),Skeels fruit extracts: In vitro and in vivo anti-inflammatory properties

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Syzygium cumini (L.) Skeels is an important medicinal plant utilized in the health care systems of Pakistan, India, Sri Lanka, and Bangladesh. S. cumini have been used to treat renal issues, indigestion, diabetes, dysentery, and employed in folk medicine to treat inflammations. It is known to anticipate antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, anticancer, anti-diabetic, anti-bacterial, antifungal, activities, and radioprotective activities.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

We examined the in vitro anti-inflammatory activities of S. cumini fruit extracts, evaluated using membrane stabilization, egg albumin denaturation, and bovine serum albumin denaturation assays. In vivo anti-inflammatory activity was also assessed, using murine models of carrageenan, formaldehyde, and PGE2 induced paw edema. Fractionation of active extracts was performed using HPLC, followed by LC-ESI-MS/MS analysis to identify the bioactive compounds responsible for anti-inflammatory activity.

RESULTS

The crude methanolic extract showed stronger in vitro and in vivo anti-inflammatory activities compared to other extracts. The most potent effects were observed in the formaldehyde induced paw edema assay wherein methanolic extract and standard indomethacin induced 72% and 88% inhibition against paw edema volume in comparison to control (normal saline) respectively. In the bovine serum albumin denaturation assay the methanolic extract induced 82% inhibition against denaturation as compared to control (phosphate buffer) while standard diclofenac sodium induced 98% inhibition. In contrast, 50% v/v MeOH:H2O or 100% dichloromethane extracts displayed moderate to weak effects in the anti-inflammatory models. HPLC fractionation provided 6 active sub-fractions, four (MF2, MF3, MF6, MF7) from the 100% methanolic extract and two (HAF1, HAF3) from the 50% methanolic extract. The MF2, MF7, and HAF1 sub-fractions displayed potent activity in all studied in vitro assays. LC-ESI-MS-MS analysis tentatively identified delphinidin 3-glucoside, peonidin-3,5-diglucoside, gallic acid, liquitrigenin, scopoletin, umbelliferon, and rosmanol from the 100% methanolic fractions. Myricetin, catechin, quinic acid, chlorogenic acid, ellagic acid, gallic acid, and caffeic acid were identified in the 50% methanolic fractions.

CONCLUSIONS

These results demonstrate that S. cumini fruit extracts are a rich source of bioactive compounds that are worthy of further investigation as leads for anti-inflammatory drug discovery.

Nephroprotective effect of persimmon leaves (Diospyros kaki L.f.) against CCl4-induced renal toxicity in Swiss Albino rats

Diospyros kaki L.f. fruit and leaves are traditionally used for the treatment of hypertension, angina, internal hemorrhage, antithrombotic and anti-inflammatory effects.In the current study, the protective effects of ethyl acetate (Per-1), n-butanol (Per-2), and aqueous (Per-3) fractions of Diospyros kaki leaves against carbon tetrachloride (CCl₄) induced nephrotoxicity in Swiss albino rats were tested. Animal were divided into nine groups; each group consists of six animals. The groups were : group I was untreated and kept as control, group II was treated with CCl₄ only, group III (silymarin with CCl₄); group IV (Per-1 100 mg/kg with CCl₄);group V (Per-1 200 mg/kg with CCl₄); group VI (Per-2 100 mg/kg with CCl₄); group VII (Per-2 200 mg/kg with CCl₄); group VIII (Per-3 100 mg/kg with CCl₄); and group IX (Per-3 200 mg/kg with CCl₄). Silymarin was used as standard drug. All tested fractions were found active (except Per-1 at low dose of 100 mg/kg) with significant value (p < 0.001) compared to CCl₄ only group. Serum creatinine, malondialdehyde (MDA), and uric acid were significantly (p < 0.001) lowered in group VII-IX as compared to CCl₄ only group. Similarly, total protein (TP) and non-protein sulfhydryls(NP-SH) level in kidney tissues were significantly (p < 0.001) elevated in the same groups compared to CCl₄ only group. Further to check the cardio-protective potential, biochemical parameters such as LDH, creatine kinase, TP, MDA, and NP-SH levels in myocardial tissues were also estimated.These findings confirmed that the n-butanol and aqueous fractions are active and recommended for further bioactive phytoconstituents screening. Repeated column chromatography on silica gel G and sephadex-LH-20 of the active n-butanol fraction, four flavonoids were isolated. Based on the spectroscopic NMR data, compounds were identified as kaempferol (1), quercetin (2), astragalin (3), and rutin (4).

Effect of Jakyakgamcho-Tang Extracts on H2O2-Induced C2C12 Myoblasts

Oxidative stress is a major contributor to muscle aging and loss of muscle tissue. Jakyakgamcho-tang (JGT) has been used in traditional Eastern medicine to treat muscle pain. Here, we compared the total phenolic and flavonoid contents in 30% ethanol and water extracts of JGT and tested the preventive effects against oxidative stress (hydrogen peroxide)-induced cell death in murine C2C12 skeletal muscle cells. The total phenolic content and total flavonoid content in 30% ethanol extracts of JGT were higher than those of water extracts of JGT. Ethanol extracts of JGT (JGT-E) had stronger antioxidant activities of 2,2′-azino-bis-3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid (ABTS) and 2,2′-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl-scavenging activity (DPPH) than water extracts of JGT (JGT-W). JGT-E contained 19–53% (1.8 to 4.9-fold) more active compounds (i.e., albiflorin, liquiritin, pentagalloylglucose, isoliquiritin apioside, isoliquiritin, liquiritigenin, and glycyrrhizin) than JGT-W. The ethanol extracts of JGT inhibited hydrogen peroxide-induced cell death and intracellular reactive oxygen species generation more effectively than the water extract of JGT in a dose-dependent manner. For the first time, these results suggest that ethanol extract of JGT is relatively more efficacious at protecting against oxidative stress-induced muscle cell death.

The effectiveness of a traditional Persian medicine preparation in the treatment of chronic cough: A randomized, double-blinded, placebo-controlled clinical trial

OBJECTIVES

The roots and rhizomes of licorice (Glycyrrhiza glabra L.) are used in traditional Persian medicine for the treatment of numerous diseases. A chronic cough is a non-specific reaction to irritation anywhere in the respiratory system. It usually lasts for more than eight weeks. The current study aimed to evaluate the effect of a modified traditional Persian medicine preparation, licorice pastille, in healing a chronic cough.

METHODS

Through a randomized, double-blinded, placebo-controlled clinical trial was performed in a respiratory disease clinic in Shiraz, Iran; between October 2016 and December 2017. Seventy participants with a chronic cough took part in the trial. The outcome measures were as the daily cough scores (the score being logged via patient symptoms, diary, and the visual analogue scale) and the quality of life measure of chronic cough according to the Leicester Cough Questionnaire.

RESULTS

At baseline, there were no significant differences in the demographic or clinical (cough score) characteristics between the two groups. There was complete adherence to protocol in both groups but, the drop-out rate was 4 patients in the placebo and 6 ones in the intervention groups. The results at the end of the trial (Week 2) and follow-up (Week 4) demonstrated the efficacy of the licorice pastille in terms of the cough severity score against the placebo group. This item showed a significant decrease in the intervention group (1.2 ± 0.93) comparing to the placebo one (1.8 ± 1.03) at follow-up time. No major side effects were reported during the study and follow-up time.

CONCLUSIONS

Licorice pastille could be a promising choice in the treatment of a chronic cough of unknown origin.

Feeding preference of Altica deserticola for leaves of Glycyrrhiza glabra and G. uralensis and its mechanism

Altica deserticola (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae) is a monophagous insect that feeds on, and is thus a harmful pest of, liquorice. Both adults and larvae feed on leaves, causing serious damage to leaf blades. It will even lead to the extinction of liquorice, resulting in significant economic losses. Leaf-disc tests were used to determine the feeding preference of A. deserticola on leaves of Glycyrrhiza uralensis and G. glabra and explore the underlying mechanism of liquorice feeding resistance to A. deserticola by comparing leaf hardness and thickness, cuticle thickness, and nitrogen and tannin content in the two plants. The results showed that larvae and adults have the same feeding preferences, i.e., both preferably fed on G. uralensis, indicating a higher resistance in this species. The hardness, thickness, and the thickness of the stratum corneum of the leaves of G. glabra were significantly greater than those of G. uralensis. Nitrogen content was higher in G. uralensis, while total tannin, tannic acid, and catechin content were higher in G. glabra. The thick cuticle and hard texture of G. glabra leaves may be an important physical trait for effectively resisting A. deserticola feeding, while high tannin and low nitrogen content may also be important.

Ethnopharmacological Survey of Herbal Remedies Used for the Treatment of Cancer in the Greater Casablanca-Morocco

Medicinal plants played an important role in traditional medicine for the treatment of diseases since antiquities. The aim of the study is to carry out an ethnobotanical survey on medicinal plants used traditionally in cancer treatment in the region of Greater Casablanca-Morocco, and to enhance the traditional herbal medicine knowledge. 110 traditional healers in the study area were interviewed face to face to response a survey questionnaire including the names of plants used in cancer treatment, used parts, methods of preparation, and route of administration. Indices of Fidelity Level (FL), Use Value (UV), and Relative Frequency of Citation (RFC) were calculated to identify the most effective plants used for cancer treatment. Eight species were specified including Aristolochia baetica, Aristolochia paucinervis, Bryonia dioica, Aquilaria malaccensis, Marrubium vulgare, Lavandula maroccana, Ephedra alata, and Euphorbia resinifera belonging to 7 families. Aristolochiaceae, Aquilariaceae, and Cucurbitaceae were the most useful families in cancer treatment with high significant indices of UV, FL, and RFC with values of 1, 100%, and 1, respectively. Roots and leaves were the most commonly used plant parts. Decoction and powder mixed with honey were the frequently used method for remedies preparation. The present study showed that the people living in Morocco's economic capital are still highly dependent on traditional herbal medicine for the treatment of cancer. Therefore, it seems that herbal medicine still plays a crucial role in the primary healthcare system for the local population. During this survey, it was reported that even some plant families are highly toxic for humans like Aristolochiaceae that are frequently used in cancer treatment in the study area. As many people still rely on natural traditional medicine considering (it is safe with no side effects), so combined effort between all social categories including scientists and traditional healers should be established for involving the scientific validity of the used plants in the treatment of diseases.