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Bolesławska I, Górna I, Sobota M, Bolesławska-Król N, Przysławski J, Szymański M. Wild Mushrooms as a Source of Bioactive Compounds and Their Antioxidant Properties-Preliminary Studies. Foods 2024; 13:2612. [PMID: 39200539 PMCID: PMC11353347 DOI: 10.3390/foods13162612] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/17/2024] [Revised: 08/09/2024] [Accepted: 08/16/2024] [Indexed: 09/02/2024] Open
Abstract
The aim of this study was to preliminarily determine the content of bioactive components in the fruiting bodies of four previously unstudied mushroom species: Aleuria aurantia, Phallus hadriani, Phanus conchatus, Geastrum pectinatum, their antioxidant activity and the content of polyphenols, minerals and heavy metals. METHODS Determination of active compounds by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry was carried out in addition to thermogravimetric determinations, quantitative determination of total polyphenols by spectrophotometry using Folin-Ciocalteu reagent, determination of antioxidant activity using 2,2-diphenyl-1-picryl hydrazyl radical (DPPH) and 2,2'-azino-di-[3-ethylbentiazoline sulphonated] (ATBS). In addition, spectrometric analysis of selected minerals and heavy metals was performed by inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectroscopy (ICP-OES). RESULTS The mushrooms analysed varied in terms of their bioactive constituents. They contained components with varying effects on human health, including fatty acids, oleamide, 1,2-dipalmitoylglycerol, (2-phenyl-1,3-dioxolan-4-yl)-methyl ester of oleic acid, deoxyspergualin, 2-methylenocholestan-3-ol, hexadecanoamide, isoallochan, 2,6-diaminopurine, and adenine. All contained polyphenols and varying amounts of minerals (calcium, magnesium, iron, zinc, potassium, phosphorus, sodium, copper, silicon and manganese) and exhibited antioxidant properties of varying potency. No exceedances of the permissible concentration of lead and cadmium were observed in any of them. CONCLUSIONS All of the mushrooms studied can provide material for the extraction of various bioactive compounds with physiological effects. In addition, the presence of polyphenols and minerals, as well as antioxidant properties and the absence of exceeding the permissible concentration of heavy metals, indicate that these species could be interesting material in the design of foods with health-promoting properties, nutraceuticals or dietary supplements. However, the use of the fruiting bodies of these mushrooms requires mandatory toxicological and clinical studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Izabela Bolesławska
- Department of Bromatology, Poznan University of Medical Sciences, 3 Rokietnicka Street, 60-806 Poznan, Poland; (I.B.); (M.S.); (J.P.)
| | - Ilona Górna
- Department of Bromatology, Poznan University of Medical Sciences, 3 Rokietnicka Street, 60-806 Poznan, Poland; (I.B.); (M.S.); (J.P.)
| | - Marta Sobota
- Department of Bromatology, Poznan University of Medical Sciences, 3 Rokietnicka Street, 60-806 Poznan, Poland; (I.B.); (M.S.); (J.P.)
| | - Natasza Bolesławska-Król
- Student Society of Radiotherapy, Collegium Medicum, University of Zielona Gora, 28 Zyty Street, 65-046 Zielona Góra, Poland;
| | - Juliusz Przysławski
- Department of Bromatology, Poznan University of Medical Sciences, 3 Rokietnicka Street, 60-806 Poznan, Poland; (I.B.); (M.S.); (J.P.)
| | - Marcin Szymański
- Centre for Advanced Technologies, Adam Mickiewicz University of Poznan, 10 University of Poznan Street, 61-614 Poznan, Poland;
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Sreekanth GP. Perspectives on the current antiviral developments towards RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (RdRp) and methyltransferase (MTase) domains of dengue virus non-structural protein 5 (DENV-NS5). Eur J Med Chem 2023; 256:115416. [PMID: 37159959 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejmech.2023.115416] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/13/2023] [Revised: 04/12/2023] [Accepted: 04/24/2023] [Indexed: 05/11/2023]
Abstract
Dengue virus (DENV) infection is one of the most emerging arboviral infections in humans. DENV is a positive-stranded RNA virus in the Flaviviridae family consisting of an 11 kb genome. DENV non-structural protein 5 (DENV-NS5) constitutes the largest among the non-structural proteins, which act as two domains, the RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (RdRp) and RNA methyltransferase enzyme (MTase). The DENV-NS5 RdRp domain contributes to the viral replication stages, whereas the MTase initiates viral RNA capping and facilitates polyprotein translation. Given the functions of both DENV-NS5 domains have made them an important druggable target. Possible therapeutic interventions and drug discoveries against DENV infection were thoroughly reviewed; however, a current update on the therapeutic strategies specific to DENV-NS5 or its active domains was not attempted. Since most potential compounds and drugs targeting the DENV-NS5 were evaluated in both in vitro cultures and animal models, a more detailed evaluation of molecules/drug candidates still requires investigation in randomized controlled clinical trials. This review summarizes current perspectives on the therapeutic strategies adopted to target the DENV-NS5 (RdRp and MTase domains) at the host-pathogen interface and further discusses the directions to identify candidate drugs to combat DENV infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gopinathan Pillai Sreekanth
- Division of Applied Biology, CSIR-Indian Institute of Chemical Technology (CSIR-IICT), Hyderabad-500007, Telangana, India.
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3
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Ellan K, Thayan R, Raman J, Hidari KIPJ, Ismail N, Sabaratnam V. Correction: Anti-viral activity of culinary and medicinal mushroom extracts against dengue virus serotype 2: an in-vitro study. BMC Complement Med Ther 2023; 23:86. [PMID: 36941686 PMCID: PMC10026467 DOI: 10.1186/s12906-023-03911-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/23/2023] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Kavithambigai Ellan
- Virology Unit, Infectious Disease Research Centre, Institute for Medical Research, Ministry of Health, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.
- Mushroom Research Centre, Institute of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Science, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.
| | - Ravindran Thayan
- Virology Unit, Infectious Disease Research Centre, Institute for Medical Research, Ministry of Health, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
| | - Jegadeesh Raman
- Mushroom Research Division, National Institute of Horticultural and Herbal Science, Rural Development Administration, Eumsung, Republic of Korea
| | - Kazuya I P J Hidari
- Department of Food and Nutrition, Junior College Division, University of Aizu, Fukushima, Japan
| | - Norizah Ismail
- Virology Unit, Disease Department, National Public Health Laboratory, Ministry of Health, Sungai Buloh, Selangor, Malaysia
| | - Vikineswary Sabaratnam
- Mushroom Research Centre, Institute of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Science, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.
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4
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Yap HYY, Ariffeen Rosli MF, Tan SH, Kong BH, Fung SY. The Wound Healing Potential of Lignosus rhinocerus and Other Ethno-myco Wound Healing Agents. MYCOBIOLOGY 2023; 51:1-15. [PMID: 36846625 PMCID: PMC9946334 DOI: 10.1080/12298093.2022.2164641] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/26/2022] [Revised: 12/28/2022] [Accepted: 12/29/2022] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
Wound care has become increasingly important over the years. Various synthetic products for wound care treatment have been reported to cause toxic side effects and therefore natural products are in significant demand as they have minimal side effects. The presence of bioactive compounds in medicinal mushrooms contributes to various biological activities which assist in the early inflammatory phase, keratinocyte proliferation, and its migration enhancement which are pertinent to wound rehabilitation. Lignosus rhinocerus (tiger milk mushroom) can reduce the inflammation phase in wound healing by fighting off bacterial infection and modulating pro-inflammatory cytokines expression in the early stage to avoid prolonged inflammation and tissue damage. The antibacterial, immunomodulating, and anti-inflammatory activities exhibited by most macrofungi play a key role in enhancing wound healing. Several antibacterial and antifungal compounds sourced from traditional botanicals/products may prevent further complications and reoccurrence of injury to a wounded site. Scientific studies are actively underway to ascertain the potential use of macrofungi as a wound healing agent.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hui-Yeng Y. Yap
- Department of Oral Biology and Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Dentistry, MAHSA University, Bandar Saujana Putra, Selangor, Malaysia
| | - Mohammad Farhan Ariffeen Rosli
- Department of Oral Biology and Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Dentistry, MAHSA University, Bandar Saujana Putra, Selangor, Malaysia
- Medicinal Mushroom Research Group (MMRG), Department of Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Universiti Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
| | - Soon-Hao Tan
- Department of Biomedical Science, Faculty of Medicine, Universiti Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
| | - Boon-Hong Kong
- Centre of Excellence for Research in AIDS (CERiA), Department of Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Universiti Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
| | - Shin-Yee Fung
- Medicinal Mushroom Research Group (MMRG), Department of Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Universiti Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
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5
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Boudagga S, Bouslama L, Papetti A, Colombo R, Arous F, Jaouani A. Antiviral activity of Inonotusin A an active compound isolated from Boletus bellinii and Boletus subtomentosus. Biologia (Bratisl) 2022; 77:3645-3655. [DOI: 10.1007/s11756-022-01219-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/21/2022] [Revised: 09/12/2022] [Accepted: 09/13/2022] [Indexed: 11/02/2022]
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6
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Arunachalam K, Sasidharan SP, Yang X. A concise review of mushrooms antiviral and immunomodulatory properties that may combat against COVID-19. FOOD CHEMISTRY ADVANCES 2022; 1:100023. [PMID: 36686330 PMCID: PMC8887958 DOI: 10.1016/j.focha.2022.100023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/17/2022] [Revised: 02/21/2022] [Accepted: 02/26/2022] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
Abstract
The World Health Organization (WHO) declared COVID-19 as a pandemic on March 11, 2020, because of its widespread transmission and infection rates. The unique severe disease was found in Wuhan, China, since December 2019, and swiftly spread throughout the world. Natural chemicals derived from herbal medicines and medicinal mushrooms provide a significant resource for the development of novel antiviral drugs. Many natural drugs have been proven to have antiviral properties against a variety of virus strains, such as the coronavirus and the herpes simplex virus (HSV).. In this research, successful dietary treatments for different COVID illnesses were compared to potential of mushroom products in its therapy. In Google Scholar, Science Direct, PubMed, and Scopus, search keywords like COVID, COVID-19, SARS, MERS, mushrooms, and their compounds were utilized. In this review of the literature we foucsed popular mushrooms such as Agaricus subrufescens Peck, Agaricus blazei Murill, Cordyceps sinensis (Berk.) Sacc., Ganoderma lucidum (Curtis.) P. Karst., Grifola frondosa (Dicks.) Gray, Hericium erinaceus (Bull.) Pers., Inonotus obliquus (Arch. Ex Pers.) Pilát., Lentinula edodes (Berk.) Pegler, Pleurotus ostreatus (Jacq.) P. Kumm., Poria cocos F.A. Wolf, and Trametes versicolor (L.) Lloyd.,. Changed forms of β-Glucan seem to have a good impact on viral replication suppression and might be used in future studies. However, the results seems terpenoids, lectins, glycoproteins, lentinan, galactomannan, and polysaccharides from mushrooms are promising prophylactic or therapeutic agents against COVID-19.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karuppusamy Arunachalam
- Key Laboratory of Economic Plants and Biotechnology, The Yunnan Key Laboratory for Wild Plant Resources, Kunming Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming 650201, China,University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China,Corresponding authors at: Key Laboratory of Economic Plants and Biotechnology, The Yunnan Key Laboratory for Wild Plant Resources, Kunming Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming 650201, China
| | | | - Xuefei Yang
- Key Laboratory of Economic Plants and Biotechnology, The Yunnan Key Laboratory for Wild Plant Resources, Kunming Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming 650201, China,University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China,Corresponding authors at: Key Laboratory of Economic Plants and Biotechnology, The Yunnan Key Laboratory for Wild Plant Resources, Kunming Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming 650201, China
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7
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Suleiman WB, Shehata RM, Younis AM. In vitro assessment of multipotential therapeutic importance of Hericium erinaceus mushroom extracts using different solvents. BIORESOUR BIOPROCESS 2022; 9:99. [PMID: 38647811 PMCID: PMC10991866 DOI: 10.1186/s40643-022-00592-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2022] [Accepted: 09/05/2022] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Infectious disease is one of the major threats to humans and it is the second leading cause of death worldwide. Edible mushrooms have many nutritional and medicinal values to human health. The medicinal properties of edible mushroom extract in inhibiting pathogenic microorganisms had advantages over the use of chemically synthetic antimicrobial compounds due to less unwanted side effects and can combat microbial resistance. This study hypothesized that the polarity affects the extraction quality of Hericium erinaceus fruiting bodies which was prepared and subsequently affects its activity as an antimicrobial against six tested microorganisms, including MRSA, and Streptococcus mutans, Enterobacter cloaca, Salmonella typhimurium, and Candida lipolytica; antiviral against Hepatitis A virus (HAV) virus; antioxidant using 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) free radical scavenging assay; and anti-inflammatory potential. So, the mushroom was quantitatively evaluated to assess its content of flavonoids, alkaloids, tannins, saponins, carbohydrates, protein, nitrogen, and oil. The current research clarified here that aquatic extract has a significant activity as an antioxidant (IC50 = 53.7 µg/mL) and antiviral (IC50 = 24.97 µg/mL), while ethyl acetate extract showed a reasonable antimicrobial activity rather than all tested extract against tested microorganisms. Unfortunately, all extracts under investigation possess low anti-inflammatory action according to the adopting protocol. The superior results of both water and ethyl acetate extracts were later investigated by HPTLC and GC-MS for preliminary prediction of the chemical constitution of those extracts. H. erinaceus mushroom succeeded to establish promising antimicrobial, antiviral, and antioxidant activities while it has low anti-inflammatory activity. Both HPTLC and GC-MS could identify the chemical constituents of the mushroom crude extract.
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Affiliation(s)
- Waleed Bakry Suleiman
- Botany and Microbiology Department, Faculty of Science (Boys), Al-Azhar University, The Permanent Camp St., 6th Ward, Nasr City, 11884, Cairo, Egypt.
| | - Reda M Shehata
- The Regional Center for Mycology and Biotechnology (RCMB), Al-Azhar University, Cairo, Egypt
| | - Ahmed M Younis
- Botany and Microbiology Department, Faculty of Science (Boys), Al-Azhar University, The Permanent Camp St., 6th Ward, Nasr City, 11884, Cairo, Egypt
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8
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Zhang Y, Zhang G, Ling J. Medicinal Fungi with Antiviral Effect. Molecules 2022; 27:molecules27144457. [PMID: 35889330 PMCID: PMC9322162 DOI: 10.3390/molecules27144457] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2022] [Revised: 07/02/2022] [Accepted: 07/04/2022] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Pandemics from various viruses make natural organisms face challenges over and over again. Therefore, new antiviral drugs urgently need to be found to solve this problem. However, drug research and development is a very difficult task, and finding new antiviral compounds is desirable. A range of medicinal fungi such as Ganoderma lucidum and Cordyceps sinensis are widely used all over the world, and they can enhance human immunity and direct anti-virus activities and other aspects to play an antiviral role. Medicinal fungi are used as foods or as food supplements. In this review, the species of medicinal fungi with antiviral activity in recent decades and the mechanism of antiviral components were reviewed from the perspectives of human, animal, and plant viruses to provide a comprehensive theory based on better clinical utilization of medicinal fungi as antiviral agents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yu Zhang
- School of Pharmacy, Shandong University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Jinan 250355, China;
| | - Guoying Zhang
- School of Pharmacy, Shandong University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Jinan 250355, China;
- Correspondence: (G.Z.); (J.L.); Tel.: +86-0531-89628200 (G.Z.); +86-0532-58631501 (J.L.)
| | - Jianya Ling
- School of Pharmacy, Shandong University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Jinan 250355, China;
- State Key Laboratory of Microbial Technology, Shandong University, Qingdao 266237, China
- Correspondence: (G.Z.); (J.L.); Tel.: +86-0531-89628200 (G.Z.); +86-0532-58631501 (J.L.)
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9
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Zaidi NJ, Abdullah AA, Heh CH, Lin CH, Othman R, Ahmad Fuaad AAH. Hit-to-Lead Short Peptides against Dengue Type 2 Envelope Protein: Computational and Experimental Investigations. Molecules 2022; 27:molecules27103233. [PMID: 35630712 PMCID: PMC9146555 DOI: 10.3390/molecules27103233] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/13/2022] [Revised: 05/14/2022] [Accepted: 05/16/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Data from the World Health Organisation show that the global incidence of dengue infection has risen drastically, with an estimated 400 million cases of dengue infection occurring annually. Despite this worrying trend, there is still no therapeutic treatment available. Herein, we investigated short peptide fragments with a varying total number of amino acid residues (peptide fragments) from previously reported dengue virus type 2 (DENV2) peptide-based inhibitors, DN58wt (GDSYIIIGVEPGQLKENWFKKGSSIGQMF), DN58opt (TWWCFYFCRRHHPFWFFYRHN), DS36wt (LITVNPIVTEKDSPVNIEAE), and DS36opt (RHWEQFYFRRRERKFWLFFW), aided by in silico approaches: peptide–protein molecular docking and 100 ns of molecular dynamics (MD) simulation via molecular mechanics using Poisson–Boltzmann surface area (MMPBSA) and molecular mechanics generalised Born surface area (MMGBSA) methods. A library of 11,699 peptide fragments was generated, subjected to in silico calculation, and the candidates with the excellent binding affinity and shown to be stable in the DI-DIII binding pocket of DENV2 envelope (E) protein were determined. Selected peptides were synthesised using conventional Fmoc solid-phase peptide chemistry, purified by RP-HPLC, and characterised using LCMS. In vitro studies followed, to test for the peptides’ toxicity and efficacy in inhibiting the DENV2 growth cycle. Our studies identified the electrostatic interaction (from free energy calculation) to be the driving stabilising force for the E protein–peptide interactions. Five key E protein residues were also identified that had the most interactions with the peptides: (polar) LYS36, ASN37, and ARG350, and (nonpolar) LEU351 and VAL354; these residues might play crucial roles in the effective binding interactions. One of the peptide fragments, DN58opt_8-13 (PFWFFYRH), showed the best inhibitory activity, at about 63% DENV2 plague reduction, compared with no treatment. This correlates well with the in silico studies in which the peptide possessed the lowest binding energy (−9.0 kcal/mol) and was maintained steadily within the binding pocket of DENV2 E protein during the MD simulations. This study demonstrates the use of computational studies to expand research on lead optimisation of antiviral peptides, thus explaining the inhibitory potential of the designed peptides.
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Affiliation(s)
- Norburhanuddin Johari Zaidi
- Peptide Laboratory, Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Universiti Malaya, Kuala Lumpur 50603, Malaysia;
- Drug Design & Development Research Group, Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Universiti Malaya, Kuala Lumpur 50603, Malaysia; (A.A.A.); (C.H.H.)
| | - Adib Afandi Abdullah
- Drug Design & Development Research Group, Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Universiti Malaya, Kuala Lumpur 50603, Malaysia; (A.A.A.); (C.H.H.)
- Centre for Natural Products Research and Drug Discovery (CENAR), Universiti Malaya, Kuala Lumpur 50603, Malaysia
| | - Choon Han Heh
- Drug Design & Development Research Group, Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Universiti Malaya, Kuala Lumpur 50603, Malaysia; (A.A.A.); (C.H.H.)
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, Universiti Malaya, Kuala Lumpur 50603, Malaysia
| | - Chun-Hung Lin
- Institute of Biological Chemistry, Academia Sinica, Nankang, Taipei 115, Taiwan;
| | - Rozana Othman
- Drug Design & Development Research Group, Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Universiti Malaya, Kuala Lumpur 50603, Malaysia; (A.A.A.); (C.H.H.)
- Centre for Natural Products Research and Drug Discovery (CENAR), Universiti Malaya, Kuala Lumpur 50603, Malaysia
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, Universiti Malaya, Kuala Lumpur 50603, Malaysia
- Correspondence: (R.O.); (A.A.H.A.F.); Tel.: +603-79674909 (R.O.); +603-79677022 (ext. 2535) (A.A.H.A.F.)
| | - Abdullah Al Hadi Ahmad Fuaad
- Peptide Laboratory, Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Universiti Malaya, Kuala Lumpur 50603, Malaysia;
- Drug Design & Development Research Group, Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Universiti Malaya, Kuala Lumpur 50603, Malaysia; (A.A.A.); (C.H.H.)
- Correspondence: (R.O.); (A.A.H.A.F.); Tel.: +603-79674909 (R.O.); +603-79677022 (ext. 2535) (A.A.H.A.F.)
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10
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Edible Mushrooms for Sustainable and Healthy Human Food: Nutritional and Medicinal Attributes. SUSTAINABILITY 2022. [DOI: 10.3390/su14094941] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Abstract
Global food production faces many challenges, including climate change, a water crisis, land degradation, and desertification. These challenges require research into non-traditional sources of human foods. Edible mushrooms are considered an important next-generation healthy food source. Edible mushrooms are rich in proteins, dietary fiber, vitamins, minerals, and other bioactive components (alkaloids, lactones, polysaccharides, polyphenolic compounds, sesquiterpenes, sterols, and terpenoids). Several bioactive ingredients can be extracted from edible mushrooms and incorporated into health-promoting supplements. It has been suggested that several human diseases can be treated with extracts from edible mushrooms, as these extracts have biological effects including anticancer, antidiabetic, antiviral, antioxidant, hepatoprotective, immune-potentiating, and hypo-cholesterolemic influences. The current study focuses on sustainable approaches for handling edible mushrooms and their secondary metabolites, including biofortification. Comparisons between edible and poisonous mushrooms, as well as the common species of edible mushrooms and their different bioactive ingredients, are crucial. Nutritional values and the health benefits of edible mushrooms, as well as different biomedical applications, have been also emphasized. Further research is needed to explore the economic sustainability of different medicinal mushroom bioactive compound extracts and their potential applications against emerging diseases such as COVID-19. New approaches such as nano-biofortification are also needed to supply edible mushrooms with essential nutrients and/or to increase their bioactive ingredients.
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Chen HY, Lei JY, Li SL, Guo LQ, Lin JF, Wu GH, Lu J, Ye ZW. Progress in biological activities and biosynthesis of edible fungi terpenoids. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr 2022; 63:7288-7310. [PMID: 35238261 DOI: 10.1080/10408398.2022.2045559] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
The edible fungi have both edible and medicinal functions, in which terpenoids are one of the most important active ingredients. Terpenoids possess a wide range of biological activities and show great potential in the pharmaceutical and healthcare industries. In this review, the diverse biological activities of edible fungi terpenoids were summarized with emphasis on the mechanism of anti-cancer and anti-inflammation. Subsequently, this review focuses on advances in knowledge and understanding of the biosynthesis of terpenoids in edible fungi, especially in the generation of sesquiterpenes, diterpenes, and triterpenes. This paper is aim to provide an overview of biological functions and biosynthesis developed for utilizing the terpenoids in edible fungi.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hai-Ying Chen
- College of Food Science, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Jin-Yu Lei
- College of Food Science, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Shu-Li Li
- College of Food Science, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Li-Qiong Guo
- College of Food Science, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Jun-Fang Lin
- College of Food Science, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Guang-Hong Wu
- College of Food Science, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, China
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Protein Function and Regulation in Agricultural Organisms, College of Life Sciences, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Jun Lu
- Faculty of Health and Environmental Sciences, Auckland University of Technology, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Zhi-Wei Ye
- College of Food Science, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, China
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Protein Function and Regulation in Agricultural Organisms, College of Life Sciences, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, China
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12
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Sen D, Debnath B, Debnath P, Debnath S, Zaki MEA, Masand VH. Identification of potential edible mushroom as SARS-CoV-2 main protease inhibitor using rational drug designing approach. Sci Rep 2022; 12:1503. [PMID: 35087077 PMCID: PMC8795408 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-022-05349-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2021] [Accepted: 01/03/2022] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2) is highly pathogenic to humans and has created health care threats worldwide. This urgent situation has focused the researchers worldwide towards the development of novel vaccine or small molecule therapeutics for SARS-CoV-2. Although several vaccines have already been discovered and are in use for the masses, no therapeutic medication has yet been approved by FDA for the treatment of COVID-19. Keeping this in view, in the present study, we have identified promising hits against the main protease (Mpro) of SARS-CoV-2 from edible mushrooms. Structure-based virtual screening (VS) of 2433 compounds derived from mushrooms was performed with Mpro protein (6LU7). Four promising hits, namely, Kynapcin-12 (M_78), Kynapcin-28 (M_82), Kynapcin-24 (M_83), and Neonambiterphenyls-A (M_366) were identified based on the result of docking, Lipinski's rule, 100 ns molecular dynamics (MD) simulation and MM/PBSA binding free energy calculations. Finally, the inhibitory properties of these hits were compared with three known inhibitors, baicalein (1), baicalin (2), and biflavonoid (3). Data indicated that M_78, M_82 and M_83 compounds present in edible mushroom Polyozellus multiplex were potent inhibitors of Mproprotein (6LU7). It could be concluded that edible mushroom Polyozellus multiplex has potential activity against SARS-CoV-2 infection and identified molecules could be further explored as therapeutic inhibitors against SARS-CoV-2.
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Affiliation(s)
- Debanjan Sen
- BCDA College of Pharmacy & Technology, Jessore Road South, Hridaypur, Kolkata, West Bengal, 700127, India
| | - Bimal Debnath
- Department of Forestry and Biodiversity, Tripura University, Suryamaninagar, Tripura, 799022, India
| | - Pradip Debnath
- Department of Chemistry, Majaraja Bir Bikram College, Agartala, Tripura, 799004, India
| | - Sudhan Debnath
- Department of Chemistry, Netaji Subhash Mahavidyalaya, Udaipur, Tripura, 799114, India.
| | - Magdi E A Zaki
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Imam Mohammad Ibn Saud Islamic University, Riyadh, 13318, Saudi Arabia.
| | - Vijay H Masand
- Department of Chemistry, Vidya Bharati Mahavidyalaya, Amravati, Maharashtra, 444 602, India
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13
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Lignosus rhinocerus TM02® sclerotia extract inhibits dengue virus replication and Infection. J Herb Med 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.hermed.2021.100505] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
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14
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Stan D, Enciu AM, Mateescu AL, Ion AC, Brezeanu AC, Stan D, Tanase C. Natural Compounds With Antimicrobial and Antiviral Effect and Nanocarriers Used for Their Transportation. Front Pharmacol 2021; 12:723233. [PMID: 34552489 PMCID: PMC8450524 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2021.723233] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 20.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/11/2021] [Accepted: 08/24/2021] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Due to the increasing prevalence of life-threatening bacterial, fungal and viral infections and the ability of these human pathogens to develop resistance to current treatment strategies, there is a great need to find and develop new compunds to combat them. These molecules must have low toxicity, specific activity and high bioavailability. The most suitable compounds for this task are usually derived from natural sources (animal, plant or even microbial). In this review article, the latest and most promising natural compounds used to combat bacteria, filamentous fungi and viruses are presented and evaluated. These include plant extracts, essential oils, small antimicrobial peptides of animal origin, bacteriocins and various groups of plant compounds (triterpenoids; alkaloids; phenols; flavonoids) with antimicrobial and antiviral activity. Data are presented on the inhibitory activity of each natural antimicrobial substance and on the putative mechanism of action against bacterial and fungal strains. The results show that among the bioactive compounds studied, triterpenoids have significant inhibitory activity against coronaviruses, but flavonoids have also been shown to inhibit SARS-COV-2. The last chapter is devoted to nanocarriers used to improve stability, bioavailability, cellular uptake/internalization, pharmacokinetic profile and reduce toxicity of natural compunds. There are a number of nanocarriers such as liposomes, drug delivery microemulsion systems, nanocapsules, solid lipid nanoparticles, polymeric micelles, dendrimers, etc. However, some of the recent studies have focused on the incorporation of natural substances with antimicrobial/antiviral activity into polymeric nanoparticles, niosomes and silver nanoparticles (which have been shown to have intrinsic antimicrobial activity). The natural antimicrobials isolated from animals and microorganisms have been shown to have good inhibitory effect on a range of pathogens, however the plants remain the most prolific source. Even if the majority of the studies for the biological activity evaluation are in silico or in vitro, their internalization in the optimum nanocarriers represents the future of “green therapeutics” as shown by some of the recent work in the field.
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Affiliation(s)
- Diana Stan
- DDS Diagnostic, Bucharest, Romania.,Titu Maiorescu University, PhD Medical School, Bucharest, Romania
| | - Ana-Maria Enciu
- Victor Babes National Institute of Pathology, Biochemistry-Proteomics Department, Bucharest, Romania
| | | | | | - Ariana Cristina Brezeanu
- Carol Davila University of Medicine and Pharmacy-Department of Plastic Surgery, Bucharest, Romania
| | | | - Cristiana Tanase
- Victor Babes National Institute of Pathology, Biochemistry-Proteomics Department, Bucharest, Romania.,Titu Maiorescu University, Faculty of Medicine, Bucharest, Romania
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15
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Mushroom Nutrition as Preventative Healthcare in Sub-Saharan Africa. APPLIED SCIENCES-BASEL 2021. [DOI: 10.3390/app11094221] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
The defining characteristics of the traditional Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) cuisine have been the richness in indigenous foods and ingredients, herbs and spices, fermented foods and beverages, and healthy and whole ingredients used. It is crucial to safeguard the recognized benefits of mainstream traditional foods and ingredients, which gradually eroded in the last decades. Notwithstanding poverty, chronic hunger, malnutrition, and undernourishment in the region, traditional eating habits have been related to positive health outcomes and sustainability. The research prevailed dealing with food availability and access rather than the health, nutrition, and diet quality dimensions of food security based on what people consume per country and on the missing data related to nutrient composition of indigenous foods. As countries become more economically developed, they shift to “modern” occidental foods rich in saturated fats, salt, sugar, fizzy beverages, and sweeteners. As a result, there are increased incidences of previously unreported ailments due to an unbalanced diet. Protein-rich foods in dietary guidelines enhance only those of animal or plant sources, while rich protein sources such as mushrooms have been absent in these charts, even in developed countries. This article considers the valorization of traditional African foodstuffs and ingredients, enhancing the importance of establishing food-based dietary guidelines per country. The crux of this review highlights the potential of mushrooms, namely some underutilized in the SSA, which is the continent’s little exploited gold mine as one of the greatest untapped resources for feeding and providing income for Africa’s growing population, which could play a role in shielding Sub-Saharan Africans against the side effects of an unhealthy stylish diet.
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16
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Thota SM, Balan V, Sivaramakrishnan V. Natural products as home-based prophylactic and symptom management agents in the setting of COVID-19. Phytother Res 2020; 34:3148-3167. [PMID: 32881214 PMCID: PMC7461159 DOI: 10.1002/ptr.6794] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/21/2020] [Revised: 06/03/2020] [Accepted: 06/19/2020] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Coronavirus disease (COVID‐19) caused by the novel coronavirus (SARS‐CoV‐2) has rapidly spread across the globe affecting 213 countries or territories with greater than six million confirmed cases and about 0.37 million deaths, with World Health Organization categorizing it as a pandemic. Infected patients present with fever, cough, shortness of breath, and critical cases show acute respiratory infection and multiple organ failure. Likelihood of these severe indications is further enhanced by age as well as underlying comorbidities such as diabetes, cardiovascular, or thoracic problems, as well as due to an immunocompromised state. Currently, curative drugs or vaccines are lacking, and the standard of care is limited to symptom management. Natural products like ginger, turmeric, garlic, onion, cinnamon, lemon, neem, basil, and black pepper have been scientifically proven to have therapeutic benefits against acute respiratory tract infections including pulmonary fibrosis, diffuse alveolar damage, pneumonia, and acute respiratory distress syndrome, as well as associated septic shock, lung and kidney injury, all of which are symptoms associated with COVID‐19 infection. This review highlights the potential of these natural products to serve as home‐based, inexpensive, easily accessible, prophylactic agents against COVID‐19.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sai Manohar Thota
- Department of Biosciences, Sri Sathya Sai Institute of Higher Learning, Anantapur, India
| | - Venkatesh Balan
- Engineering Technology Department, College of Technology, University of Houston, Sugar Land, Texas, USA
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17
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Hetland G, Johnson E, Bernardshaw SV, Grinde B. Can medicinal mushrooms have prophylactic or therapeutic effect against COVID-19 and its pneumonic superinfection and complicating inflammation? Scand J Immunol 2020; 93:e12937. [PMID: 32657436 PMCID: PMC7404338 DOI: 10.1111/sji.12937] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2020] [Revised: 06/04/2020] [Accepted: 07/06/2020] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Medicinal mushrooms have documented effects against different diseases, including infections and inflammatory disorders. The related Basidiomycota Agaricus blazei Murill (AbM), Hericium erinaceus (HE), and Grifola frondosa (GF) have been shown to exert antimicrobial activity against viral agents, Gram‐positive and Gram‐negative bacteria, and parasites in vitro and in vivo. Since the mechanism is immunomodulatory and not antibiotical, the mushrooms should be active against multi‐drug resistant microbes as well. Moreover, since these Basidiomycota also have anti‐inflammatory properties, they may be suited for treatment of the severe lung inflammation that often follows COVID‐19 infection. An AbM‐based mushroom extract (Andosan™), also containing HE and GF, has been shown to significantly reduce bacteraemia and increase survival in mice with pneumococcal sepsis, and to improve symptoms and quality of life in IBD patients via an anti‐inflammatory effect. Hence, such mushroom extracts could have prophylactic or therapeutic effect against the pneumonic superinfection and severe lung inflammation that often complicates COVID‐19 infection. Here, we review antimicrobial and anti‐inflammatory properties of AbM, HE and GF mushrooms, which could be used for the battle against COVID‐19.
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Affiliation(s)
- Geir Hetland
- Department of Immunology and Transfusion Medicine, Oslo University Hospital (OUH), Oslo, Norway.,Institute of Clinical Medicine, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
| | - Egil Johnson
- Institute of Clinical Medicine, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway.,Department of Gastrointestinal and Pediatric Surgery, Oslo University Hospital, Oslo, Norway
| | | | - Bjørn Grinde
- Norwegian Institute of Public Health, Oslo, Norway
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18
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Goh VSL, Mok CK, Chu JJH. Antiviral Natural Products for Arbovirus Infections. Molecules 2020; 25:molecules25122796. [PMID: 32560438 PMCID: PMC7356825 DOI: 10.3390/molecules25122796] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/28/2020] [Revised: 06/14/2020] [Accepted: 06/15/2020] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Over the course of the last 50 years, the emergence of several arboviruses have resulted in countless outbreaks globally. With a high proportion of infections occurring in tropical and subtropical regions where arthropods tend to be abundant, Asia in particular is a region that is heavily affected by arboviral diseases caused by dengue, Japanese encephalitis, West Nile, Zika, and chikungunya viruses. Major gaps in protection against the most significant emerging arboviruses remains as there are currently no antivirals available, and vaccines are only available for some. A potential source of antiviral compounds could be discovered in natural products—such as vegetables, fruits, flowers, herbal plants, marine organisms and microorganisms—from which various compounds have been documented to exhibit antiviral activities and are expected to have good tolerability and minimal side effects. Polyphenols and plant extracts have been extensively studied for their antiviral properties against arboviruses and have demonstrated promising results. With an abundance of natural products to screen for new antiviral compounds, it is highly optimistic that natural products will continue to play an important role in contributing to antiviral drug development and in reducing the global infection burden of arboviruses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vanessa Shi Li Goh
- Laboratory of Molecular RNA Virology and Antiviral Strategies, Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore 117545, Singapore;
- Infectious Disease Programme, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore 117597, Singapore
| | - Chee-Keng Mok
- Laboratory of Molecular RNA Virology and Antiviral Strategies, Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore 117545, Singapore;
- Infectious Disease Programme, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore 117597, Singapore
- Correspondence: (C.-K.M.); (J.J.H.C.)
| | - Justin Jang Hann Chu
- Laboratory of Molecular RNA Virology and Antiviral Strategies, Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore 117545, Singapore;
- Infectious Disease Programme, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore 117597, Singapore
- Collaborative and Translation Unit for HFMD, Institute of Molecular and Cell Biology, Agency for Science, Technology and Research (A*STAR), Singapore 138673, Singapore
- Correspondence: (C.-K.M.); (J.J.H.C.)
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19
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Sangeetha B, Krishnamoorthy AS, Renukadevi P, Malathi VG, Jeya Sundara Sharmila D, Amirtham D. Antiviral activity of basidiomycetous fungi against Groundnut bud necrosis virus in tomato. PESTICIDE BIOCHEMISTRY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2020; 166:104570. [PMID: 32448423 DOI: 10.1016/j.pestbp.2020.104570] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/17/2020] [Revised: 03/25/2020] [Accepted: 03/29/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Tomato is an important vegetable crop which is severely affected by Groundnut bud necrosis virus (GBNV). Until now effective antiviral agents have not been reported for the management of necrosis disease caused by GBNV. Therefore, a study was undertaken to manage the necrosis disease caused by GBNV using culture filtrate of basidiomycetous fungi viz., Coprinopsiscinerea, Ganoderma lucidum and Lentinula edodes. In vitro studies were conducted in the indicator host cowpea and primary host tomato in glasshouse under insect proof condition; co-inoculation spraying of culture filtrate of Ganoderma lucidum at 0.1% concentration reduced the lesion numbers and inhibited the virus population build-up when compared to inoculated control in the indicator host cowpea upto 77.83%. DAC-ELISA test was performed to quantify the virus titre, indicated reduced virus titre in co- inoculation spray of culture filtrate of G. lucidum treated cowpea with OD value 0.17 ± 0.01 at 405 nm and in tomato plants 0.14 ± 0.01 respectively. The viral copy numbers were quantified by qPCR. About 2.0 × 101 viral copy numbers were observed in tomato plants treated with G. lucidum (co-inoculation) which was lesser than untreated inoculated control plants (2.4 × 108). In order to identify the antiviral properties of G. lucidum, GCMS analysis was carried out and we found the triterpenoid compound Squalene. This is the first study to analyse and confirm the antiviral activity of G. lucidum against a plant virus.
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Affiliation(s)
- B Sangeetha
- Department of Plant Pathology, Centre for Plant Protection studies, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu 641003, India
| | - A S Krishnamoorthy
- Department of Plant Pathology, Centre for Plant Protection studies, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu 641003, India.
| | - P Renukadevi
- Department of Sericulture, Forest College and Research Institute, Mettupalayam, Tamil Nadu 641301, India
| | - V G Malathi
- Department of Plant Pathology, Centre for Plant Protection studies, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu 641003, India
| | - D Jeya Sundara Sharmila
- Department of Nano science and Technology, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu 641003, India
| | - D Amirtham
- Department of Food and Agricultural process engineering, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu 641003, India
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20
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Yanuck SF, Pizzorno J, Messier H, Fitzgerald KN. Evidence Supporting a Phased Immuno-physiological Approach to COVID-19 From Prevention Through Recovery. Integr Med (Encinitas) 2020; 19:8-35. [PMID: 32425712 PMCID: PMC7190003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
This paper presents an evidence-based strategy for improving clinical outcomes in COVID-19. Recommendations are based on the phases of the disease, because optimal interventions for one phase may not be appropriate for a different phase. The four phases addressed are: Prevention, Infection, Inflammation and Recovery. Underlying this phased approach is recognition of emerging evidence for two different components of pathophysiology, early infection and late stage severe complications. These two aspects of the disease suggest two different patterns of clinical emphasis that seem on the surface to be not entirely concordant. We describe the application of therapeutic strategies and appropriate tactics that address four main stages of disease progression for COVID-19. Emerging evidence in COVID-19 suggests that the SARS-CoV-2 virus may both evade the innate immune response and kill macrophages. Delayed innate immune response and a depleted population of macrophages can theoretically result in a blunted antigen presentation, delaying and diminishing activation of the adaptive immune response. Thus, one clinical strategy involves supporting patient innate and adaptive immune responses early in the time course of illness, with the goal of improving the timeliness, readiness, and robustness of both the innate and adaptive immune responses. At the other end of the disease pathology spectrum, risk of fatality in COVID-19 is driven by excessive and persistent upregulation of inflammatory mechanisms associated with cytokine storm. Thus, the second clinical strategy is to prevent or mitigate excessive inflammatory response to prevent the cytokine storm associated with high mortality risk. Clinical support for immune system pathogen clearance mechanisms involves obligate activation of immune response components that are inherently inflammatory. This puts the goals of the first clinical strategy (immune activation) potentially at odds with the goals of the second strategy(mitigation of proinflammatory effects). This creates a need for discernment about the time course of the illness and with that, understanding of which components of an overall strategy to apply at each phase of the time course of the illness. We review evidence from early observational studies and the existing literature on both outcomes and mechanisms of disease, to inform a phased approach to support the patient at risk for infection, with infection, with escalating inflammation during infection, and at risk of negative sequelae as they move into recovery.
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Affiliation(s)
- SF Yanuck
- Program on Integrative Medicine, Department of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, University of North Carolina School of Medicine; Yanuck Center for Life & Health; Cogence Immunology; Chapel Hill, NC, USA
| | - J Pizzorno
- Editor-in-Chief, Integrative Medicine, A Clinicians Journal; Coauthor, Textbook of Natural Medicine; Chair, Board of Directors, Institute for Functional Medicine; Founding President, Bastyr University; Seattle, WA, USA
| | - H Messier
- Medical Director, Altum Medical; Chief Medical Officer, Medical Intelligence Learning Labs; San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - KN Fitzgerald
- Clinic Director, Sandy Hook Functional Medicine; Sandy Hook, CT, USA
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