Engineering of bioactive metal sulfide nanomaterials for cancer therapy

Recent advancements and perspectives of photoresponsive inorganic nanomaterials for cancer phototherapy and diagnosis

PTT (photothermal therapy)/PDT (photodynamic therapy) has unique advantages, such as its minimally invasive nature and clinical relative safety, and is considered a promising approach for cancer diagnosis and treatment. However, the therapeutic efficacy of phototherapy is often limited by the limited depth of light penetration and the low targeting of phototherapeutic agents. Recently, photoresponsive inorganic nanomaterials have flourished in the fields of PTT and PDT in cancer, providing a possible approach to enhance phototherapeutic potency. This review summarizes the recent research progress of common photoresponsive inorganic nanomaterials in the field of PTT and PDT and their diagnosis in cancer, involving noble metal nanoparticles, sulfide nanomaterials, oxide nanomaterials, and carbon nanomaterials. It focuses on the therapeutic and diagnostic performance of PTT and PDT of these inorganic nanomaterials and provides strategy improvements for expanding the drug delivery application of PTT/PDT. Finally, the future research and development of photoresponsive inorganic nanosystems for the treatment and diagnosis of PTT/PDT in cancer are discussed, and the possible opportunities and challenges are discussed.

One-Step Symbiosis of Bimetallic Peroxides Nanoparticles to Induce Ferroptosis/Cuproptosis and Activate cGAS-STING Pathway for Enhanced Tumor Immunotherapy

To improve the efficiency and application prospects of metal peroxides in tumor therapy, the synthesis of bimetallic peroxides via simple yet effective approaches will be highly significant. In this work, hyaluronic acid modified zinc-copper bimetallic peroxides (ZCPO@HA) nanoparticles are synthesized through a one-step symbiotic method by co-hydrolysis of zinc acetate and copper acetate in weakly alkaline solution, followed by modification with sodium hyaluronate. Upon decomposition in the tumor microenvironment, ZCPO@HA nanoparticles can generate a considerable content of hydroxyl radical (·OH) by Fenton-like reaction between Cu2+ and self-compensating hydrogen peroxide, while downregulating the expression of glutathione peroxidase 4 to induce ferroptosis. The abundant release of Cu2+ leads to the aggregation of dihydrolipoamide S-acetyltransferase and the reduction of iron-sulfur cluster proteins, causing cuproptosis. The immunogenic cell death of tumor cells releases abundant damage associated molecular patterns, effectively activating the adaptive immune response. Zn2+ and ·OH cause mitochondrial damage, leading to the release of a substantial amount of mitochondrial DNA. This subsequently activates the cyclic guanosine monophosphate-adenosine monophosphate synthase-stimulator of interferon genes (cGAS-STING) pathway, enhancing the innate immune response. In conclusion, it synthesizes a new type of bimetallic peroxides by one-step symbiosis for activating anti-tumor immunotherapy combined with immune checkpoint inhibitor.

Bioactive metal sulfide nanomaterials as photo-enhanced chemodynamic nanoreactors for tumor therapy

Metal sulfide nanomaterials (MeSNs) are highly promising for biomedical applications due to their low toxicity, good dispersibility, high stability, adjustable particle sizes, and good biocompatibility. Their unique chemical and light-conversion properties also enable them to function as photothermal or photodynamic agents, enhancing chemodynamic therapy (CDT) of tumors. This makes MeSNs valuable as photo-enhanced CDT nanoagents, advancing precision and multi-modal tumor treatment. This review examines recent advancements in MeSNs for photo-enhanced chemodynamic tumor ablation, comparing their effectiveness in CDT. It highlights the roles of photothermal, photodynamic, and photocatalytic effects in enhancing treatment efficacy. MeSN-based nanoreactors are categorized by composition into iron sulfide, copper sulfide, other unary, and multi-MeSNs for their applications in tumor therapy. Additionally, this review discusses challenges, limitations, and future biomedical applications of MeSNs, offering insights into their potential for next-generation cancer treatments.

Bimetallic MnZnSX Nanotheranostics for Self-Activatable Chemo-Immunotherapy of Hepatocellular Carcinoma via H₂S-Triggered Arsenic Prodrug Activation and Binary cGAS-STING Pathway Modulation

Arsenic trioxide (As2O3) has long been utilized in traditional Chinese medicine due to its therapeutic properties. While it exhibits potent anticancer activity, its clinical application is hindered by systemic toxicity and limited tissue specificity. In this study, an advanced therapeutic approach is developed using arsenic prodrug-loaded bimetallic sulfide MnZnSX nanorods (As-MnZnSX NRs) to enhance both the efficacy and safety of As2O3 in hepatocellular carcinoma treatment. These nanorods are engineered to release Mn2+ and H2S within the tumor microenvironment, facilitating binary-cooperative activation of the cGAS-STING pathway. This dual activation mechanism enhances immune responses while converting the arsenic prodrug into its cytotoxic form, AsIII. The results demonstrate that Mn2+ amplifies the cGAS-STING pathway by inducing TBK1 phosphorylation and IRF3 activation, leading to dendritic cell maturation and improved tumor antigen cross-presentation. Simultaneously, H2S promotes prodrug conversion and enhances immune activation, collectively driving binary stimulation of the cGAS-STING pathway. This strategy significantly augments the antitumor efficacy of As2O3 by integrating immune modulation with targeted cytotoxic effects. Furthermore, MnZnSX nanorods enable in vivo MRI, allowing real-time monitoring of treatment progression. This study represents a substantial advancement in liver cancer therapy by integrating chemoimmunotherapy with diagnostic imaging, thereby improving therapeutic precision while minimizing systemic toxicity.

Metal hexacyanoferrates in photodynamic and photothermal therapies

Photodynamic therapy (PDT) involves a reaction between photosensitizers (PS) and oxygen (O2) to generate cytotoxic reactive oxygen species (ROS), which effectively eliminate undesired cells. Compared to conventional treatments like surgery, radiation, and chemotherapy, PDT offers several advantages, including minimal toxicity to healthy tissues and no long-term systemic side effects. However, its therapeutic efficacy is limited under hypoxic conditions, as the process relies on the presence of oxygen in the target tissue. To address these challenges, combining PDT with photothermal therapy (PTT) creates a synergistic phototherapy approach. The heat generated by PTT enhances blood flow in tumors, increasing oxygen delivery to tumor sites and boosting PDT's effectiveness. These combinations are being explored in PDT/PTT as an innovative, synergistic cancer treatment strategy, aiming to enhance the therapeutic index. One promising strategy to connect both PDT and PTT therapies involves developing nanosystems that integrate metal hexacyanoferrate (MHCF) nanoparticles with multifunctional PS. Here, we review several studies that have evaluated the combination of MHCF with various PSs to apply PDT and PTT synergistically. We discuss how nanocomposites based on these materials can address the challenges and limitations still faced in PDT/PTT. This review aims to identify new opportunities for the application of metal hexacyanoferrates in these phototherapeutic modalities.

Research progress of metal-CpG composite nanoadjuvants in tumor immunotherapy

The practical benefits and therapeutic potential of tumor vaccines in immunotherapy have drawn significant attention in the field of cancer treatment. Among the available vaccines, nanovaccines that utilize nanoparticles as carriers or adjuvants have demonstrated considerable effectiveness in combating cancer. Cytosine-phosphate-guanine oligodeoxynucleotide (CpG ODN), a common adjuvant in tumor nanovaccines, activates both humoral and cellular immunity by recognizing toll-like receptor 9 (TLR9), thereby aiding in the prevention and treatment of cancer. Metal nanoparticles hold great promise in tumor immunotherapy due to their adjustable size, surface functionalization, ability to regulate innate immunity, and capacity for controlled delivery of antigens or immunomodulators. Consequently, composite nanoadjuvants, formed by combining metal nanoparticles with CpG ODNs, can be customized to meet the specific performance requirements of different application scenarios, effectively overcoming the limitations of conventional immunotherapy approaches. This review provides a comprehensive analysis of the critical role of metal-CpG composite nanoadjuvants in advancing vaccine adjuvants for cancer therapy and prevention, highlighting their efficacy in preclinical settings.

Fluorescent Heterocyclic Compound-Loaded Bi2Se3-Polysorbate Nanoparticles for Targeted Therapy in Non-Small Cell Lung Cancer

This study introduces a novel approach for non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) treatment by developing Bi2Se3-Polysorbate nanoparticles as a multifunctional platform for photothermal therapy and targeted drug delivery. The Bi2Se3-Polysorbates nanoparticles are engineered as innovative photosensitive drug carriers, enhancing biocompatibility through the combination of Bi2Se3 and Polysorbates. Characterization techniques such as Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), transmission electron microscopy (TEM), and ultraviolet-visible (UV-Vis) spectroscopy confirm the successful synthesis of the nanoparticles. In a breakthrough step, these nanoparticles are combined with a novel heterocyclic drug (drug-1), verified by single-crystal analysis, to create the Bi2Se3-Polysorbates@drug-1 composite. Biological evaluations show that the system significantly inhibits cell proliferation in NSCLC cells, and molecular docking studies reveal that drug-1 interacts with the target protein through hydrogen bonds, halogen bonds, and hydrophobic interactions, suggesting promising anti-cancer activity. This research presents a novel multifunctional nanoplatform for effective drug delivery and offers a new strategy for the treatment of NSCLC, demonstrating significant advancements in cancer therapy.

Review of recent preclinical and clinical research on ligand-targeted liposomes as delivery systems in triple negative breast cancer therapy

Triple-negative breast Cancer (TNBC) is one of the deadliest types, making up about 20% of all breast cancers. Chemotherapy is the traditional manner of progressed TNBC treatment; however, it has a short-term result with a high reversibility pace. The lack of targeted treatment limited and person-dependent treatment options for those suffering from TNBC cautions to be the worst type of cancer among breast cancer patients. Consequently, appropriate treatment for this disease is considered a major clinical challenge. Therefore, various treatment methods have been developed to treat TNBC, among which chemotherapy is the most common and well-known approach recently studied. Although effective methods are chemotherapies, they are often accompanied by critical limitations, especially the lack of specific functionality. These methods lead to systematic toxicity and, ultimately, the expansion of multidrug-resistant (MDR) cancer cells. Therefore, finding novel and efficient techniques to enhance the targeting of TNBC treatment is an essential requirement. Liposomes have demonstrated that they are an effective method for drug delivery; however, among a large number of liposome-based drug delivery systems annually developed, a small number have just received authorization for clinical application. The new approaches to using liposomes target their structure with various ligands to increase therapeutic efficiency and diminish undesired side effects on various body tissues. The current study describes the most recent strategies and research associated with functionalizing the liposomes' structure with different ligands as targeted drug carriers in treating TNBCs in preclinical and clinical stages.

Immunomodulatory metal-based biomaterials for cancer immunotherapy

Cancer immunotherapy, as an emerging cancer treatment approach, harnesses the patient's own immune system to effectively prevent tumor recurrence or metastasis. However, its clinical application has been significantly hindered by relatively low immune response rates. In recent years, metal-based biomaterials have been extensively studied as effective immunomodulators and potential tools for enhancing anti-tumor immune responses, enabling the reversal of immune suppression without inducing toxic side effects. This review introduces the classification of bioactive metal elements and summarizes their immune regulatory mechanisms. In addition, we discuss the immunomodulatory roles of biomaterials constructed from various metals, including aluminum, manganese, gold, calcium, zinc, iron, magnesium, and copper. More importantly, a systematic overview of their applications in enhancing immunotherapy is provided. Finally, the prospects and challenges of metal-based biomaterials with immunomodulatory functions in cancer immunotherapy are outlined.

The role of cuproptosis in gastric cancer

As a biologically essential transition metal, copper is widely involved in various enzymatic reactions and crucial biological processes in the body. It plays an increasingly important role in maintaining normal cellular metabolism and supporting the growth and development of the human body. As a trace element, copper maintains the dynamic balance of its concentration in body fluids through active homeostatic mechanisms. Both excess and deficiency of copper ions can impair cell function, ultimately leading to cell damage and death. Cuproptosis is a novel form of cell death where copper ions cause cell death by directly binding to the lipoylated components of the citric acid cycle (CAC) in mitochondrial respiration and interfering with the levels of iron-sulfur cluster (Fe-S cluster) proteins, ultimately causing protein toxic stress. Its primary characteristics are Cu2+ concentration dependence and high expression in mitochondrial respiratory cells. Recent research has revealed that, compared to other forms of programmed cell death such as apoptosis, necrosis, and autophagy, cuproptosis has unique morphological and biochemical features. Cuproptosis is associated with the occurrence and development of various diseases, including cancer, neurodegenerative diseases, and cardiovascular diseases. This article focuses on a review of the relevance of cuproptosis in gastric cancer (GC).

Microbial green synthesis of luminescent terbium sulfide nanoparticles using E. Coli: a rare earth element detoxification mechanism

BACKGROUND

Rare-earth sulfide nanoparticles (NPs) could harness the optical and magnetic features of rare-earth ions for applications in nanotechnology. However, reports of their synthesis are scarce and typically require high temperatures and long synthesis times.

RESULTS

Here we present a biosynthesis of terbium sulfide (TbS) NPs using microorganisms, identifying conditions that allow Escherichia coli to extracellularly produce TbS NPs in aqueous media at 37 °C by controlling cellular sulfur metabolism to produce a high concentration of sulfide ions. Electron microscopy revealed ultrasmall spherical NPs with a mean diameter of 4.1 ± 1.3 nm. Electron diffraction indicated a high degree of crystallinity, while elemental mapping confirmed colocalization of terbium and sulfur. The NPs exhibit characteristic absorbance and luminescence of terbium, with downshifting quantum yield (QY) reaching 28.3% and an emission lifetime of ~ 2 ms.

CONCLUSIONS

This high QY and long emission lifetime is unusual in a neat rare-earth compound; it is typically associated with rare-earth ions doped into another crystalline lattice to avoid non-radiative cross relaxation. This suggests a reduced role of nonradiative processes in these terbium-based NPs. This is, to our knowledge, the first report revealing the advantage of biosynthesis over chemical synthesis for Rare Earth Element (REE) based NPs, opening routes to new REE-based nanocrystals.

New insights into targeted therapy of glioblastoma using smart nanoparticles

In recent times, the intersection of nanotechnology and biomedical research has given rise to nanobiomedicine, a captivating realm that holds immense promise for revolutionizing diagnostic and therapeutic approaches in the field of cancer. This innovative fusion of biology, medicine, and nanotechnology aims to create diagnostic and therapeutic agents with enhanced safety and efficacy, particularly in the realm of theranostics for various malignancies. Diverse inorganic, organic, and hybrid organic-inorganic nanoparticles, each possessing unique properties, have been introduced into this domain. This review seeks to highlight the latest strides in targeted glioblastoma therapy by focusing on the application of inorganic smart nanoparticles. Beyond exploring the general role of nanotechnology in medical applications, this review delves into groundbreaking strategies for glioblastoma treatment, showcasing the potential of smart nanoparticles through in vitro studies, in vivo investigations, and ongoing clinical trials.

Adjuvant Novel Nanocarrier-Based Targeted Therapy for Lung Cancer

Lung cancer has the lowest survival rate due to its late-stage diagnosis, poor prognosis, and intra-tumoral heterogeneity. These factors decrease the effectiveness of treatment. They release chemokines and cytokines from the tumor microenvironment (TME). To improve the effectiveness of treatment, researchers emphasize personalized adjuvant therapies along with conventional ones. Targeted chemotherapeutic drug delivery systems and specific pathway-blocking agents using nanocarriers are a few of them. This study explored the nanocarrier roles and strategies to improve the treatment profile's effectiveness by striving for TME. A biofunctionalized nanocarrier stimulates biosystem interaction, cellular uptake, immune system escape, and vascular changes for penetration into the TME. Inorganic metal compounds scavenge reactive oxygen species (ROS) through their photothermal effect. Stroma, hypoxia, pH, and immunity-modulating agents conjugated or modified nanocarriers co-administered with pathway-blocking or condition-modulating agents can regulate extracellular matrix (ECM), Cancer-associated fibroblasts (CAF),Tyro3, Axl, and Mertk receptors (TAM) regulation, regulatory T-cell (Treg) inhibition, and myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSC) inhibition. Again, biomimetic conjugation or the surface modification of nanocarriers using ligands can enhance active targeting efficacy by bypassing the TME. A carrier system with biofunctionalized inorganic metal compounds and organic compound complex-loaded drugs is convenient for NSCLC-targeted therapy.

Nickel sulfide and dysprosium-doped nickel sulfide nanoparticles: Dysprosium-induced variation in properties, in vitro chemo-photothermal behavior, and antibacterial activity

Newer materials for utilization in multi-directional therapeutic actions are investigated, considering delicate design principles involving size and shape control, surface modification, and controllable drug loading and release. Multi-faceted properties are imparted to the engineered nanoparticles, like magnetism, near-infrared absorption, photothermal efficiency, and suitable size and shape. This report presents nickel sulfide and dysprosium-doped nickel sulfide nanoparticles with poly-β-cyclodextrin polymer coating. The nanoparticles belong to the orthorhombic crystal systems, as indicated by X-ray diffraction studies. The size and shape of the nanoparticles are investigated using Transmission Electron Microscope (TEM) and a particle-size analyzer. The particles show soft ferromagnetic characteristics with definite and moderate saturation magnetization values. The nickel sulfide nanoparticles' in vitro anticancer and antibacterial activities are investigated in free and 5-fluorouracil/penicillin benzathine-loaded forms. The 5-fluorouracil-encapsulation efficiency of the nanoparticles is around 87%, whereas it is above 92% in the case of penicillin benzathine. Both drugs are released slowly in a controlled fashion. The dysprosium-doped nickel sulfide nanoparticles show better anticancer activity, and the efficacy is more significant than the free drug. The nanoparticles are irradiated with a low-power 808 nm laser. The dysprosium-doped nickel sulfide nanoparticles attain a higher temperature on irradiation, i.e., above 59 °C. The photothermal conversion efficiency of this material is determined, and the significance of dysprosium doping is discussed. Contrarily, the undoped nickel sulfide nanoparticles show more significant antibacterial activity. This study presents a novel designed nanoparticle system and the exciting variation of properties on dysprosium doping in nickel sulfide nanoparticles.

Tantalum Nitride-Based Theranostic Agent for Photoacoustic Imaging-Guided Photothermal Therapy in the Second NIR Window

Metal nitrides show excellent photothermal stability and conversion properties, which have the potential for photothermal therapy (PTT) for cancer. Photoacoustic imaging (PAI) is a new non-invasive and non-ionizing biomedical imaging method that can provide real-time guidance for precise cancer treatment. In this work, we develop polyvinylpyrrolidone-functionalized tantalum nitride nanoparticles (defined as TaN-PVP NPs) for PAI-guided PTT of cancer in the second near-infrared (NIR-II) window. The TaN-PVP NPs are obtained by ultrasonic crushing of massive tantalum nitride and further modification by PVP to obtain good dispersion in water. Due to their good absorbance in the NIR-II window, TaN-PVP NPs with good biocompatibility have obvious photothermal conversion performance, realizing efficient tumor elimination by PTT in the NIR-II window. Meanwhile, the excellent PAI and photothermal imaging (PTI) capabilities of TaN-PVP NPs are able to provide monitoring and guidance for the treatment process. These results indicate that TaN-PVP NPs are qualified for cancer photothermal theranostics.

Microwave-Assisted Fabrication of High Energy Density Binary Metal Sulfides for Enhanced Performance in Battery Applications

Nanomaterials have found use in a number of relevant energy applications. In particular, nanoscale motifs of binary metal sulfides can function as conversion materials, similar to that of analogous metal oxides, nitrides, or phosphides, and are characterized by their high theoretical capacity and correspondingly low cost. This review focuses on structure-composition-property relationships of specific relevance to battery applications, emanating from systematic attempts to either (1) vary and alter the dimension of nanoscale architectures or (2) introduce conductive carbon-based entities, such as carbon nanotubes and graphene-derived species. In this study, we will primarily concern ourselves with probing metal sulfide nanostructures generated by a microwave-mediated synthetic approach, which we have explored extensively in recent years. This particular fabrication protocol represents a relatively facile, flexible, and effective means with which to simultaneously control both chemical composition and physical morphology within these systems to tailor them for energy storage applications.

Fungal β-Glucan-Based Nanotherapeutics: From Fabrication to Application

Fungal β-glucans are naturally occurring active macromolecules used in food and medicine due to their wide range of biological activities and positive health benefits. Significant research efforts have been devoted over the past decade to producing fungal β-glucan-based nanomaterials and promoting their uses in numerous fields, including biomedicine. Herein, this review offers an up-to-date report on the synthetic strategies of common fungal β-glucan-based nanomaterials and preparation methods such as nanoprecipitation and emulsification. In addition, we highlight current examples of fungal β-glucan-based theranostic nanosystems and their prospective use for drug delivery and treatment in anti-cancer, vaccination, as well as anti-inflammatory treatments. It is anticipated that future advances in polysaccharide chemistry and nanotechnology will aid in the clinical translation of fungal β-glucan-based nanomaterials for the delivery of drugs and the treatment of illnesses.

Metal ions and nanometallic materials in antitumor immunity: Function, application, and perspective

The slightest change in the extra/intracellular concentration of metal ions results in amplified effects by signaling cascades that regulate both cell fate within the tumor microenvironment and immune status, which influences the network of antitumor immunity through various pathways. Based on the fact that metal ions influence the fate of cancer cells and participate in both innate and adaptive immunity, they are widely applied in antitumor therapy as immune modulators. Moreover, nanomedicine possesses the advantage of precise delivery and responsive release, which can perfectly remedy the drawbacks of metal ions, such as low target selectivity and systematic toxicity, thus providing an ideal platform for metal ion application in cancer treatment. Emerging evidence has shown that immunotherapy applied with nanometallic materials may significantly enhance therapeutic efficacy. Here, we focus on the physiopathology of metal ions in tumorigenesis and discuss several breakthroughs regarding the use of nanometallic materials in antitumor immunotherapeutics. These findings demonstrate the prominence of metal ion-based nanomedicine in cancer therapy and prophylaxis, providing many new ideas for basic immunity research and clinical application. Consequently, we provide innovative insights into the comprehensive understanding of the application of metal ions combined with nanomedicine in cancer immunotherapy in the past few years.

Recent advances in metal sulfide nanoparticle-added bionanocomposite films for food packaging applications

Metal sulfide nanoparticles have recently attracted much attention due to their unique physical and functional properties. Metal sulfide nanoparticles used as optoelectronic and biomedical materials in the past decades are promising for making functional nanocomposite films due to their low toxicity and strong antibacterial activity. Recently, copper sulfide and zinc sulfide nanomaterials have been used to produce food packaging films for active packaging. Metal sulfide nanoparticles added as nanofillers are attracting attention in packaging applications due to their excellent potential to improve mechanical, barrier properties, and antibacterial activity. This review covers the fabrication process and important applications of metal sulfide nanoparticles. The development of metal sulfides reinforcing mainly copper sulfide and zinc sulfide nanomaterials as multifunctional nanofillers in bio-based films for active packaging applications has been comprehensively reviewed. As the recognition of metal sulfide nanoparticles as a functional filler increases, the development and application potential of active packaging films using them is expected to increase.

Engineering cancer cell membrane-camouflaged metal complex for efficient targeting therapy of breast cancer

Background

Cancer cell membrane-camouflaged nanotechnology for metal complex can enhance its biocompatibility and extend the effective circulation time in body. The ruthenium polypyridyl complex (RuPOP) has extensive antitumor activity, but it still has disadvantages such as poor biocompatibility, lack of targeting, and being easily metabolized by the organism. Cancer cell membranes retain a large number of surface antigens and tumor adhesion molecules CD47, which can be used to camouflage the metal complex and give it tumor homing ability and high biocompatibility.

Results

Therefore, this study provides an electrostatic adsorption method, which uses the electrostatic interaction of positive and negative charges between RuPOP and cell membranes to construct a cancer cell membrane-camouflaged nano-platform (RuPOP@CM). Interestingly, RuPOP@CM maintains the expression of surface antigens and tumor adhesion molecules, which can inhibit the phagocytosis of macrophage, reduce the clearance rate of RuPOP, and increase effective circulation time, thus enhancing the accumulation in tumor sites. Besides, RuPOP@CM can enhance the activity of cellular immune response and promote the production of inflammatory cytokines including TNF-α, IL-12 and IL-6, which is of great significance in treatment of tumor. On the other hand, RuPOP@MCM can produce intracellular ROS overproduction, thereby accelerating the apoptosis and cell cycle arrest of tumor cells to play an excellent antitumor effect in vitro and in vivo.

Conclusion

In brief, engineering cancer cell membrane-camouflaged metal complex is a potential strategy to improve its biocompatibility, biological safety and antitumor effects.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12951-022-01593-5.

Nanotechnology-integrated ferroptosis inducers: a sharp sword against tumor drug resistance

Presently, the biggest hurdle to cancer therapy is the inevitable emergence of drug resistance. Since conventional therapeutic schedules fall short of the expectations in curbing drug resistance, the development of novel drug resistance management strategies is critical. Extensive research over the last decade has revealed that the process of ferroptosis is correlated with cancer resistance; moreover, it has been demonstrated that ferroptosis inducers reverse drug resistance. To elucidate the development and promote the clinical transformation of ferroptosis strategies in cancer therapy, we first analyzed the roles of key ferroptosis-regulating molecules in the progression of drug resistance in-depth and then reviewed the design of ferroptosis-inducing strategies based on nanotechnology for overcoming drug resistance, including glutathione depletion, reactive oxygen species generation, iron donation, lipid peroxidation aggregation, and multiple-drug resistance-associated tumor cell destruction. Finally, the prospects and challenges of regulating ferroptosis as a therapeutic strategy for reversing cancer therapy resistance were evaluated. This review aimed to provide a comprehensive understanding for researchers to develop ferroptosis-inducing nanoplatforms that can overcome drug resistance.

Recent advances in nanoparticle-based photothermal therapy for breast cancer

Breast cancer is one of the most common cancers among women that is associated with high mortality. Conventional treatments including surgery, radiotherapy, and chemotherapy, which are not effective enough and have disadvantages such as toxicity and damage to healthy cells. Photothermal therapy (PTT) of cancer cells has been took great attention by researchers in recent years due to the use of light radiation and heat generation at the tumor site, which thermal ablation is considered a minimally invasive method for the treatment of breast cancer. Nanotechnology has opened up a new perspective in the treatment of breast cancer using PTT method. Through NIR light absorption, researchers applied various nanostructures because of their specific nature of penetrating and targeting tumor tissue, increasing the effectiveness of PTT, and combining it with other treatments. If PTT is used with common cancer treatments, it can dramatically increase the effectiveness of treatment and reduce the side effects of other methods. PTT performance can also be improved by hybridizing at least two different nanomaterials. Nanoparticles that intensely absorb light and increase the efficiency of converting light into heat can specifically kill tumors through hyperthermia of cancer cells. One of the main reasons that have increased the efficiency of nanoparticles in PTT is their permeability and durability effect and they can accumulate in tumor tissue. Targeted PTT can be provided by incorporating specific ligands to target receptors expressed on the surface of cancer cells on nanoparticles. These nanoparticles can specifically target cancer cells by maintaining the surface area and increasing penetration. In this study, we briefly introduce the performance of light therapy, application of metal nanoparticles, polymer nanoparticles, carbon nanoparticles, and hybrid nanoparticles for use in PTT of breast cancer.

Rapid synthesis of 'yolk-shell'-like nanosystem for MR molecular and chemo-radio sensitization

Though amounts of attempts about nanomedicine for chemo-radiotherapy have been made, more efficient strategies for chemo-radio therapy enhancement still need to be studied and perfected. Herein, a 'yolk-shell'-like nanostructure (Bi₂S₃@mBi_xMn_yO_z nanosystem) was facilely constructed by directly using radiosensitizer Bi₂S₃ nanorods (NRs) as a partial sacrificial template. Then, the chemotherapeutic drug doxorubicin (DOX) loaded PEGylated Bi₂S₃@mBi_xMn_yO_z nanosystem (PBmB-DOX) was constructed, which could realize tumor microenvironment (TME)-responsive drug release for chemotherapy sensitivity enhancement. And the Bi₂S₃ NRs core could deposit more radiant energy to improve the radiotherapy sensitivity. Meanwhile, the compounds shell could catalyze H₂O₂ to generate O₂, so as to alleviate tumor hypoxia for further chemo-radio therapy sensitization enhancement. More importantly, ferroptosis was participated in the process of PBmB-induced therapy via glutathione (GSH)-depletion mediated GPX4 inactivation, together with Mn ions induced chemodynamic therapy (Fenton-like reaction), which made additional contributions to increase the therapeutic efficacy. Last but not least, the GSH-stimulated degradation of compounds shell could contribute to self-enhanced T₁-MR imaging activation, which allowed on-demand tumor diagnosis. In this work, the synthetic strategy that directly using Bi₂S₃ NRs as a partial sacrificial template to rapidly synthesize the 'yolk-shell'-like nanostructure for nanomedical application has rarely been reported before. And the in vitro and in vivo results suggest that our 'yolk-shell'-like PBmB-DOX nanosystem holds great promise to regulate TME for tumor-specific diagnosis and synergistic therapy.

Photodynamic Therapeutic Effect of Nanostructured Metal Sulfide Photosensitizers on Cancer Treatment

Photodynamic therapy (PDT) utilizes photosensitizers (PSs) to produce reactive oxygen species (ROSs) upon irradiation, which causes the shutdown of vessels and deprives the tumor of nutrients and oxygen, and in turn induces adverse effects on the immune system. However, significant efforts are needed to increase the efficiency in PDT in terms of light delivery to specific PSs for the clinical treatment of tumors located deep under the skin. Even though PDT offers a disease site-specific treatment modality, current efforts are directed to improve the solubility (in body fluids and injectable solvents), photostability, amphiphilicity (for tissue penetration), elimination, and systemic toxicity of traditional PSs based on porphyrin derivatives. Nanostructured materials show promising features to achieve most of such combined efforts. They can be artificially engineered to carry multiple theranostic agents onto targeted tumor sites. However, recent studies on photosensitive Cd-based nanostructures, mostly used in PDT, indicate that leeching of Cd2+ ions is stimulated when they are exposed to harsh biological conditions for continuous periods of time, thus making them acutely toxic and hindering their applications in in vivo settings. Since nanostructured materials are not completely immune to degradation, great strides have been made to seek new alternatives. In this review, we focus on the latest advances of Cd-free nanostructured metal transition sulfides (MTSs) as alternative PSs and study their high-energy transfer efficiency, rational designs, and potential applications in cancer-targeted PDT. Nanostructured MTSs are discussed in the context of their versatility to serve as phototherapy agents and superior properties, including their strong absorption in the NIR region, excellent photothermal conversion efficiency, controlled reactive oxygen species (ROS) production, versatile surface chemistry, high fluorescence, and structural and thermal stability. We discuss the latest advancements in correlating the self-aggregation of MTSs with their passive tumor cell targeting, highlighting their ability to efficiently produce ROSs, and mitigating their dark toxicity through polymeric functionalization. Treatment of deep-seated tumors by using these PSs upon preferential uptake by tumor tissues (due to the enhanced permeability and retention effect) is also reviewed. We finally summarize the main future perspectives of MTSs as next-generation PSs within the context of cancer theranostics.

Advances with metal oxide-based nanoparticles as MDR metastatic breast cancer therapeutics and diagnostics

Metal oxide nanoparticles have attracted increased attention due to their emerging applications in cancer detection and therapy. This study envisioned to highlight the great potential of metal oxide NPs due to their interesting properties including high payload, response to magnetic field, affluence of surface modification to overcome biological barriers, and biocompatibility. Mammogram, ultrasound, X-ray computed tomography (CT), MRI, positron emission tomography (PET), optical or fluorescence imaging are used for breast imaging. Drug-loaded metal oxide nanoparticle delivered to the breast cancer cells leads to higher drug uptake. Thus, enhanced the cytotoxicity to target cells compared to free drug. The drug loaded metal oxide nanoparticle formulations hold great promise to enhance efficacy of breast cancer therapy including multidrug resistant (MDR) and metastatic breast cancers. Various metal oxides including magnetic metal oxides and magnetosomes are of current interests to explore cancer drug delivery and diagnostic efficacy especially for metastatic breast cancer. Metal oxide-based nanocarrier formulations are promising for their usage in drug delivery and release to breast cancer cells, cancer diagnosis and their clinical translations.

Biomarker targeted therapy approaches for TNBC using metal oxide-based NPs are highly effective and promising.