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Li L, Foo MJ, Chen J, Tan KY, Cai J, Swaminathan R, Chua KSG, Wee SK, Kuah CWK, Zhuo H, Ang WT. Mobile Robotic Balance Assistant (MRBA): a gait assistive and fall intervention robot for daily living. J Neuroeng Rehabil 2023; 20:29. [PMID: 36859286 PMCID: PMC9979429 DOI: 10.1186/s12984-023-01149-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/24/2022] [Accepted: 02/14/2023] [Indexed: 03/03/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Aging degrades the balance and locomotion ability due to frailty and pathological conditions. This demands balance rehabilitation and assistive technologies that help the affected population to regain mobility, independence, and improve their quality of life. While many overground gait rehabilitation and assistive robots exist in the market, none are designed to be used at home or in community settings. METHODS A device named Mobile Robotic Balance Assistant (MRBA) is developed to address this problem. MRBA is a hybrid of a gait assistive robot and a powered wheelchair. When the user is walking around performing activities of daily living, the robot follows the person and provides support at the pelvic area in case of loss of balance. It can also be transformed into a wheelchair if the user wants to sit down or commute. To achieve instability detection, sensory data from the robot are compared with a predefined threshold; a fall is identified if the value exceeds the threshold. The experiments involve both healthy young subjects and an individual with spinal cord injury (SCI). Spatial Parametric Mapping is used to assess the effect of the robot on lower limb joint kinematics during walking. The instability detection algorithm is evaluated by calculating the sensitivity and specificity in identifying normal walking and simulated falls. RESULTS When walking with MRBA, the healthy subjects have a lower speed, smaller step length and longer step time. The SCI subject experiences similar changes as well as a decrease in step width that indicates better stability. Both groups of subjects have reduced joint range of motion. By comparing the force sensor measurement with a calibrated threshold, the instability detection algorithm can identify more than 93% of self-induced falls with a false alarm rate of 0%. CONCLUSIONS While there is still room for improvement in the robot compliance and the instability identification, the study demonstrates the first step in bringing gait assistive technologies into homes. We hope that the robot can encourage the balance-impaired population to engage in more activities of daily living to improve their quality of life. Future research includes recruiting more subjects with balance difficulty to further refine the device functionalities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lei Li
- Rehabilitation Research Institute of Singapore, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Ming Jeat Foo
- Rehabilitation Research Institute of Singapore, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, Singapore.
| | - Jiaye Chen
- Rehabilitation Research Institute of Singapore, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Kuan Yuee Tan
- Rehabilitation Research Institute of Singapore, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Jiaying Cai
- Rehabilitation Research Institute of Singapore, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Rohini Swaminathan
- Rehabilitation Research Institute of Singapore, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Karen Sui Geok Chua
- Centre for Rehabilitation Excellence (CORE), Tan Tock Seng Hospital, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Seng Kwee Wee
- Centre for Rehabilitation Excellence (CORE), Tan Tock Seng Hospital, Singapore, Singapore
| | | | - Huiting Zhuo
- Centre for Rehabilitation Excellence (CORE), Tan Tock Seng Hospital, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Wei Tech Ang
- Rehabilitation Research Institute of Singapore, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, Singapore
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Mathunny JJ, Karthik V, Devaraj A, Jacob J. A scoping review on recent trends in wearable sensors to analyze gait in people with stroke: From sensor placement to validation against gold-standard equipment. Proc Inst Mech Eng H 2023; 237:309-326. [PMID: 36704959 DOI: 10.1177/09544119221142327] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
Abstract
The purpose of the review is to evaluate wearable sensor placement, their impact and validation of wearable sensors on analyzing gait, primarily the postural instability in people with stroke. Databases, namely PubMed, Cochrane, SpringerLink, and IEEE Xplore were searched to identify related articles published since January 2005. The authors have selected the articles by considering patient characteristics, intervention details, and outcome measurements by following the priorly set inclusion and exclusion criteria. From a total of 1077 articles, 142 were included in this study and classified into functional fields, namely postural stability (PS) assessments, physical activity monitoring (PA), gait pattern classification (GPC), and foot drop correction (FDC). The review covers the types of wearable sensors, their placement, and their performance in terms of reliability and validity. When employing a single wearable sensor, the pelvis and foot were the most used locations for detecting gait asymmetry and kinetic parameters, respectively. Multiple Inertial Measurement Units placed at different body parts were effectively used to estimate postural stability and gait pattern. This review article has compared results of placement of sensors at different locations helping researchers and clinicians to identify the best possible placement for sensors to measure specific kinematic and kinetic parameters in persons with stroke.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jaison Jacob Mathunny
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, SRM Institute of Science and Technology, Chennai, India
| | - Varshini Karthik
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, SRM Institute of Science and Technology, Chennai, India
| | - Ashokkumar Devaraj
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, SRM Institute of Science and Technology, Chennai, India
| | - James Jacob
- Department of Physical Therapy, Kindred Healthcare, Munster, IN, USA
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Johannsen L, Potwar K, Saveriano M, Endo S, Lee D. Robotic Light Touch Assists Human Balance Control During Maximum Forward Reaching. HUMAN FACTORS 2022; 64:514-526. [PMID: 32911982 DOI: 10.1177/0018720820950534] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE We investigated how light interpersonal touch (IPT) provided by a robotic system supports human individuals performing a challenging balance task compared to IPT provided by a human partner. BACKGROUND IPT augments the control of body balance in contact receivers without a provision of mechanical body weight support. The nature of the processes governing the social haptic interaction, whether they are predominantly reactive or predictive, is uncertain. METHOD Ten healthy adult individuals performed maximum forward reaching (MFR) without visual feedback while standing upright. We evaluated their control of reaching behavior and of body balance during IPT provided by either another human individual or by a robotic system in two alternative control modes (reactive vs. predictive). RESULTS Reaching amplitude was not altered by any condition but all IPT conditions showed reduced body sway in the MFR end-state. Changes in reaching behavior under robotic IPT conditions, such as lower speed and straighter direction, were linked to reduced body sway. An Index of Performance expressed a potential trade-off between speed and accuracy with lower bitrate in the IPT conditions. CONCLUSION The robotic IPT system was as supportive as human IPT. Robotic IPT seemed to afford more specific adjustments in the human contact receiver, such as trading reduced speed for increased accuracy, to meet the intrinsic demands and constraints of the robotic system or the demands of the social context when in contact with a human contact provider.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leif Johannsen
- 9165 RWTH Aachen University, Germany
- University of East Anglia, Norwich, United Kingdom
| | | | | | | | - Dongheui Lee
- 9184 Technical University Munich, Germany
- German Aerospace Center (DLR), Weßling, Germany
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Antonellis P, Mohammadzadeh Gonabadi A, Myers SA, Pipinos II, Malcolm P. Metabolically efficient walking assistance using optimized timed forces at the waist. Sci Robot 2022; 7:eabh1925. [PMID: 35294219 DOI: 10.1126/scirobotics.abh1925] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
The metabolic rate of walking can be reduced by applying a constant forward force at the center of mass. It has been shown that the metabolically optimal constant force magnitude minimizes propulsion ground reaction force at the expense of increased braking. This led to the hypothesis that selectively assisting propulsion could lead to greater benefits. We used a robotic waist tether to evaluate the effects of forward forces with different timings and magnitudes. Here, we show that it is possible to reduce the metabolic rate of healthy participants by 48% with a greater efficiency ratio of metabolic cost reduction per unit of net aiding work compared with other assistive robots. This result was obtained using a sinusoidal force profile with peak timing during the middle of the double support. The same timing could also reduce the metabolic rate in patients with peripheral artery disease. A model explains that the optimal force profile accelerates the center of mass into the inverted pendulum movement during single support. Contrary to the hypothesis, the optimal force timing did not entirely coincide with propulsion. Within the field of wearable robotics, there is a trend to use devices to mimic biological torque or force profiles. Such bioinspired actuation can have relevant benefits; however, our results demonstrate that this is not necessarily optimal for reducing metabolic rate.
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Affiliation(s)
- Prokopios Antonellis
- Department of Biomechanics and Center for Research in Human Movement Variability, University of Nebraska at Omaha, 6160 University Drive South, Omaha, NE 68182, USA.,Department of Neurology, School of Medicine, Oregon Health & Science University, 3181 SW Sam Jackson Park Road, OP-32, Portland, OR 97239, USA
| | - Arash Mohammadzadeh Gonabadi
- Department of Biomechanics and Center for Research in Human Movement Variability, University of Nebraska at Omaha, 6160 University Drive South, Omaha, NE 68182, USA.,Rehabilitation Engineering Center, Institute for Rehabilitation Science and Engineering, Madonna Rehabilitation Hospital, 5401 South Street, Lincoln, NE 68506, USA
| | - Sara A Myers
- Department of Biomechanics and Center for Research in Human Movement Variability, University of Nebraska at Omaha, 6160 University Drive South, Omaha, NE 68182, USA.,Department of Surgery and Research Service, Veterans Affairs Nebraska-Western Iowa Medical Center, Omaha, NE 68105, USA
| | - Iraklis I Pipinos
- Department of Surgery and Research Service, Veterans Affairs Nebraska-Western Iowa Medical Center, Omaha, NE 68105, USA.,Department of Surgery, University of Nebraska Medical Center, 982500 Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE 68198, USA
| | - Philippe Malcolm
- Department of Biomechanics and Center for Research in Human Movement Variability, University of Nebraska at Omaha, 6160 University Drive South, Omaha, NE 68182, USA
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Linde MB, Thoreson AR, Lopez C, Gill ML, Veith DD, Hale RF, Calvert JS, Grahn PJ, Fautsch KJ, Sayenko DG, Zhao KD. Quantitative Assessment of Clinician Assistance During Dynamic Rehabilitation Using Force Sensitive Resistors. FRONTIERS IN REHABILITATION SCIENCES 2021; 2:757828. [PMID: 36188812 PMCID: PMC9397738 DOI: 10.3389/fresc.2021.757828] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/12/2021] [Accepted: 10/25/2021] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
Background: Neuromodulation using epidural electrical stimulation (EES) has shown functional restoration in humans with chronic spinal cord injury (SCI). EES during body weight supported treadmill training (BWSTT) enhanced stepping performance in clinical trial participants with paraplegia. Unfortunately, tools are lacking in availability to quantify clinician assistance during BWSTT with and without EES. Force sensitive resistors (FSRs) have previously quantified clinician assistance during static standing; however, dynamic tasks have not been addressed. Objective: To determine the validity of FSRs in measurements of force and duration to quantify clinician assistance and participant progression during BWSTT with EES in participants with SCI. Design: A feasibility study to determine the effectiveness of EES to restore function in individuals with SCI. Methods: Two male participants with chronic SCI were enrolled in a pilot phase clinical trial. Following implantation of an EES system in the lumbosacral spinal cord, both participants underwent 12 months of BWSTT with EES. At monthly intervals, FSRs were positioned on participants' knees to quantity forces applied by clinicians to achieve appropriate mechanics of stepping during BWSTT. The FSRs were validated on the benchtop using a leg model instrumented with a multiaxial load cell as the gold standard. The outcomes included clinician-applied force duration measured by FSR sensors and changes in applied forces indicating progression over the course of rehabilitation. Results: The force sensitive resistors validation revealed a proportional bias in their output. Loading required for maximal assist training exceeded the active range of the FSRs but were capable of capturing changes in clinician assist levels. The FSRs were also temporally responsive which increased utility for accurately assessing training contact time. The FSRs readings were able to capture independent stance for both participants by study end. There was minimal to no applied force bilaterally for participant 1 and unilaterally for participant 2. Conclusions: Clinician assistance applied at the knees as measured through FSRs during dynamic rehabilitation and EES (both on and off) effectively detected point of contact and duration of forces; however, it lacks accuracy of magnitude assessment. The reduced contact time measured through FSRs related to increased stance duration, which objectively identified independence in stepping during EES-enabled BWSTT following SCI.
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Affiliation(s)
- Margaux B. Linde
- Assistive and Restorative Technology Laboratory, Department of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, Rehabilitation Medicine Research Center, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, United States
| | - Andrew R. Thoreson
- Assistive and Restorative Technology Laboratory, Department of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, Rehabilitation Medicine Research Center, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, United States
- Department of Physiology and Biomedical Engineering, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, United States
| | - Cesar Lopez
- Assistive and Restorative Technology Laboratory, Department of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, Rehabilitation Medicine Research Center, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, United States
| | - Megan L. Gill
- Assistive and Restorative Technology Laboratory, Department of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, Rehabilitation Medicine Research Center, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, United States
| | - Daniel D. Veith
- Assistive and Restorative Technology Laboratory, Department of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, Rehabilitation Medicine Research Center, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, United States
| | - Rena F. Hale
- Assistive and Restorative Technology Laboratory, Department of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, Rehabilitation Medicine Research Center, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, United States
| | - Jonathan S. Calvert
- Mayo Clinic Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, United States
| | - Peter J. Grahn
- Assistive and Restorative Technology Laboratory, Department of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, Rehabilitation Medicine Research Center, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, United States
- Department of Neurologic Surgery, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, United States
| | - Kalli J. Fautsch
- Assistive and Restorative Technology Laboratory, Department of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, Rehabilitation Medicine Research Center, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, United States
| | - Dimitry G. Sayenko
- Department of Neurosurgery, Center for Neuroregeneration, Houston Methodist Hospital, Houston, TX, United States
| | - Kristin D. Zhao
- Assistive and Restorative Technology Laboratory, Department of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, Rehabilitation Medicine Research Center, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, United States
- Department of Physiology and Biomedical Engineering, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, United States
- *Correspondence: Kristin D. Zhao
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Fricke SS, Bayón C, der Kooij HV, F. van Asseldonk EH. Automatic versus manual tuning of robot-assisted gait training in people with neurological disorders. J Neuroeng Rehabil 2020; 17:9. [PMID: 31992322 PMCID: PMC6986041 DOI: 10.1186/s12984-019-0630-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2019] [Accepted: 11/27/2019] [Indexed: 01/11/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND In clinical practice, therapists choose the amount of assistance for robot-assisted training. This can result in outcomes that are influenced by subjective decisions and tuning of training parameters can be time-consuming. Therefore, various algorithms to automatically tune the assistance have been developed. However, the assistance applied by these algorithms has not been directly compared to manually-tuned assistance yet. In this study, we focused on subtask-based assistance and compared automatically-tuned (AT) robotic assistance with manually-tuned (MT) robotic assistance. METHODS Ten people with neurological disorders (six stroke, four spinal cord injury) walked in the LOPES II gait trainer with AT and MT assistance. In both cases, assistance was adjusted separately for various subtasks of walking (in this study defined as control of: weight shift, lateral foot placement, trailing and leading limb angle, prepositioning, stability during stance, foot clearance). For the MT approach, robotic assistance was tuned by an experienced therapist and for the AT approach an algorithm that adjusted the assistance based on performances for the different subtasks was used. Time needed to tune the assistance, assistance levels and deviations from reference trajectories were compared between both approaches. In addition, participants evaluated safety, comfort, effect and amount of assistance for the AT and MT approach. RESULTS For the AT algorithm, stable assistance levels were reached quicker than for the MT approach. Considerable differences in the assistance per subtask provided by the two approaches were found. The amount of assistance was more often higher for the MT approach than for the AT approach. Despite this, the largest deviations from the reference trajectories were found for the MT algorithm. Participants did not clearly prefer one approach over the other regarding safety, comfort, effect and amount of assistance. CONCLUSION Automatic tuning had the following advantages compared to manual tuning: quicker tuning of the assistance, lower assistance levels, separate tuning of each subtask and good performance for all subtasks. Future clinical trials need to show whether these apparent advantages result in better clinical outcomes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Simone S. Fricke
- Department of Biomechanical Engineering, University of Twente, Enschede, The Netherlands
| | - Cristina Bayón
- Department of Biomechanical Engineering, University of Twente, Enschede, The Netherlands
| | - Herman van der Kooij
- Department of Biomechanical Engineering, University of Twente, Enschede, The Netherlands
- Department of BioMechanical Engineering, Delft University of Technology, Delft, The Netherlands
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