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Singh M, Kumar M, Califf KE, Cigan AM. Transcriptional gene silencing in bread wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) and its application to regulate male fertility for hybrid seed production. PLANT BIOTECHNOLOGY JOURNAL 2022; 20:2149-2158. [PMID: 35869675 PMCID: PMC9616518 DOI: 10.1111/pbi.13895] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/28/2021] [Revised: 02/06/2022] [Accepted: 07/09/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Transcriptional gene silencing (TGS) can offer a straightforward tool for functional analysis of plant genes, particularly in polyploid species such as wheat, where genetic redundancy poses a challenge in applying mutagenesis approaches, including CRISPR gene editing. In this study, we demonstrate efficient TGS in wheat, mediated by constitutive RNA expression of a promoter inverted repeat (pIR). pIR-mediated TGS of two anther-specific genes, TaMs45 and TaMs1, abolished their function resulting in male sterility. Whilst TGS of TaMs45 required transcriptional silencing of all three homoeologs, a B-genome-specific pIR for TaMs1 was sufficient to confer male sterility. We further show that the pIRs effect TGS of TaMs45 gene through DNA methylation of homologous promoter sequence, successfully suppressing transcription of all three homoeologs. Applying pIR-mediated TGS in wheat, we have generated a dominant male fertility system for production of hybrid seed and demonstrated the efficacy of this system under greenhouse and field conditions. This report describes the first successful TGS in wheat, whilst providing a dominant negative approach as alternative to gene knockout strategies for hybrid wheat breeding and seed production.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - A. Mark Cigan
- Corteva AgriscienceJohnstonIowaUSA
- Present address:
Genus plcDeForestWisconsinUSA
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2
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Kumar M, Tripathi PK, Ayzenshtat D, Marko A, Forotan Z, Bocobza SE. Increased rates of gene-editing events using a simplified RNAi configuration designed to reduce gene silencing. PLANT CELL REPORTS 2022; 41:1987-2003. [PMID: 35849200 DOI: 10.1007/s00299-022-02903-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/25/2022] [Accepted: 06/30/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
An optimal RNAi configuration that could restrict gene expression most efficiently was determined. This approach was also used to target PTGS and yielded higher rates of gene-editing events. Although it was characterized long ago, transgene silencing still strongly impairs transgene overexpression, and thus is a major barrier to plant crop gene-editing. The development of strategies that could prevent transgene silencing is therefore essential to the success of gene editing assays. Transgene silencing occurs via the RNA silencing process, which regulates the expression of essential genes and protects the plant from viral infections. The RNA silencing machinery thereby controls central biological processes such as growth, development, genome integrity, and stress resistance. RNA silencing is typically induced by aberrant RNA, that may lack 5' or 3' processing, or may consist in double-stranded or hairpin RNA, and involves DICER and ARGONAUTE family proteins. In this study, RNAi inducing constructs were designed in eleven different configurations and were evaluated for their capacity to induce silencing in Nicotiana spp. using transient and stable transformation assays. Using reporter genes, it was found that the overexpression of a hairpin consisting of a forward tandem inverted repeat that started with an ATG and that was not followed downstream by a transcription terminator, could downregulate gene expression most potently. Furthermore, using this method, the downregulation of the NtSGS3 gene caused a significant increase in transgene expression both in transient and stable transformation assays. This SGS3 silencing approach was also employed in gene-editing assays and caused higher rates of gene-editing events. Taken together, these findings suggested the optimal genetic configuration to cause RNA silencing and showed that this strategy may be used to restrict PTGS during gene-editing experiments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Manoj Kumar
- Department of Ornamental Plants and Agricultural Biotechnology, The Institute of Plant Sciences, The Volcani Center, ARO, Beit Dagan, Israel
| | - Pankaj Kumar Tripathi
- Department of Ornamental Plants and Agricultural Biotechnology, The Institute of Plant Sciences, The Volcani Center, ARO, Beit Dagan, Israel
| | - Dana Ayzenshtat
- Department of Ornamental Plants and Agricultural Biotechnology, The Institute of Plant Sciences, The Volcani Center, ARO, Beit Dagan, Israel
| | - Adar Marko
- Department of Ornamental Plants and Agricultural Biotechnology, The Institute of Plant Sciences, The Volcani Center, ARO, Beit Dagan, Israel
| | - Zohar Forotan
- Department of Ornamental Plants and Agricultural Biotechnology, The Institute of Plant Sciences, The Volcani Center, ARO, Beit Dagan, Israel
| | - Samuel E Bocobza
- Department of Ornamental Plants and Agricultural Biotechnology, The Institute of Plant Sciences, The Volcani Center, ARO, Beit Dagan, Israel.
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3
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Lacombe S, Bangratz M, Ta HA, Nguyen TD, Gantet P, Brugidou C. Optimized RNA-Silencing Strategies for Rice Ragged Stunt Virus Resistance in Rice. PLANTS 2021; 10:plants10102008. [PMID: 34685817 PMCID: PMC8540896 DOI: 10.3390/plants10102008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/15/2021] [Revised: 08/31/2021] [Accepted: 09/21/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Rice ragged stunt virus (RRSV) is one of the most damaging viruses of the rice culture area in south and far-eastern Asia. To date, no genetic resistance has been identified and only expensive and non-environmentally friendly chemical treatments are deployed to fight this important disease. Non-chemical approaches based on RNA-silencing have been developed as resistance strategies against viruses. Here, we optimized classical miRNA and siRNA-based strategies to obtain efficient and durable resistance to RRSV. miRNA-based strategies are involved in producing artificial miRNA (amiR) targeting viral genomes in plants. Classically, only one amiR is produced from a single construct. We demonstrated for the first time that two amiRs targeting conserved regions of RRSV genomes could be transgenically produced in Nicotiana benthamiana and in rice for a single precursor. Transgenic rice plants producing either one or two amiR were produced. Despite efficient amiR accumulations, miRNA-based strategies with single or double amiRs failed to achieve efficient RRSV resistance in transformed rice plants. This suggests that this strategy may not be adapted to RRSV, which could rapidly evolve to counteract them. Another RNA-silencing-based method for viral resistance concerns producing several viral siRNAs targeting a viral fragment. These viral siRNAs are produced from an inverted repeat construct carrying the targeted viral fragment. Here, we optimized the inverted repeat construct using a chimeric fragment carrying conserved sequences of three different RRSV genes instead of one. Of the three selected homozygous transgenic plants, one failed to accumulate the expected siRNA. The two other ones accumulated siRNAs from either one or three fragments. A strong reduction of RRSV symptoms was observed only in transgenic plants expressing siRNAs. We consequently demonstrated, for the first time, an efficient and environmentally friendly resistance to RRSV in rice based on the siRNA-mediated strategy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Severine Lacombe
- PHIM Plant Health Institute, University Montpellier, IRD, CIRAD, INRAE, Institut Agro, 34090 Montpellier, France; (M.B.); (C.B.)
- Correspondence:
| | - Martine Bangratz
- PHIM Plant Health Institute, University Montpellier, IRD, CIRAD, INRAE, Institut Agro, 34090 Montpellier, France; (M.B.); (C.B.)
| | - Hoang Anh Ta
- Plant Protection Research Institute (PPRI), Bac Tu Liem District, Hanoi 10000, Vietnam;
| | - Thanh Duc Nguyen
- Agricultural Genetics Institute, Bac Tu Liem District, Hanoi 10000, Vietnam;
| | - Pascal Gantet
- UMR DIADE, Université de Montpellier, IRD, 34090 Montpellier, France;
| | - Christophe Brugidou
- PHIM Plant Health Institute, University Montpellier, IRD, CIRAD, INRAE, Institut Agro, 34090 Montpellier, France; (M.B.); (C.B.)
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4
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RNA Interference (RNAi) in Tomato Crop Research. Methods Mol Biol 2020. [PMID: 33263909 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-0716-1201-9_11] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register]
Abstract
RNA interference (RNAi) is a posttranscriptional gene silencing phenomenon induced by double-stranded RNA. It has been widely used as a knockdown technology to analyze gene function in many organisms. In tomato, RNAi technology has widely been used as a reverse genetic tool for functional genomics study. Generally, RNAi is often achieved through transgenes producing hairpin RNA molecules. RNAi lines have the advantage with respect to more modern CRISPR/Cas9 mutants of different levels of downregulation of target gene, and allow the characterization of life-essential genes that cannot be knocked out without killing the organism. Also, RNAi allows to suppress gene expression in multigene families in a regulated manner. In this chapter, an efficient approach to create RNAi stable knockdown-transformed tomato lines is reported. In order, it describes the choice of the target silencing fragment, a highly efficient cloning strategy for the hairpin RNA construct production, a relatively easy procedure to transform and regenerate tomato plants using Agrobacterium tumefaciens and a methodology to test the goodness of the transformation procedure.
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Kausch AP, Nelson-Vasilchik K, Hague J, Mookkan M, Quemada H, Dellaporta S, Fragoso C, Zhang ZJ. Edit at will: Genotype independent plant transformation in the era of advanced genomics and genome editing. PLANT SCIENCE : AN INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL PLANT BIOLOGY 2019; 281:186-205. [PMID: 30824051 DOI: 10.1016/j.plantsci.2019.01.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2018] [Revised: 12/07/2018] [Accepted: 01/10/2019] [Indexed: 05/21/2023]
Abstract
The combination of advanced genomics, genome editing and plant transformation biology presents a powerful platform for basic plant research and crop improvement. Together these advances provide the tools to identify genes as targets for direct editing as single base pair changes, deletions, insertions and site specific homologous recombination. Recent breakthrough technologies using morphogenic regulators in plant transformation creates the ability to introduce reagents specific toward their identified targets and recover stably transformed and/or edited plants which are genotype independent. These technologies enable the possibility to alter a trait in any variety, without genetic disruption which would require subsequent extensive breeding, but rather to deliver the same variety with one trait changed. Regulatory issues regarding this technology will predicate how broadly these technologies will be implemented. In addition, education will play a crucial role for positive public acceptance. Taken together these technologies comprise a platform for advanced breeding which is an imperative for future world food security.
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Affiliation(s)
- Albert P Kausch
- Department of Cell and Molecular Biology, University of Rhode Island, RI 02892, USA.
| | | | - Joel Hague
- Department of Cell and Molecular Biology, University of Rhode Island, RI 02892, USA
| | - Muruganantham Mookkan
- Plant Transformation Core Facility, Division of Plant Sciences, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO 65211, USA
| | | | - Stephen Dellaporta
- Yale University, New Haven, CT 06520, USA; Verinomics Inc., New Haven, CT 06520, USA
| | | | - Zhanyuan J Zhang
- Plant Transformation Core Facility, Division of Plant Sciences, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO 65211, USA
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Caselli F, Beretta VM, Mantegazza O, Petrella R, Leo G, Guazzotti A, Herrera-Ubaldo H, de Folter S, Mendes MA, Kater MM, Gregis V. REM34 and REM35 Control Female and Male Gametophyte Development in Arabidopsis thaliana. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2019; 10:1351. [PMID: 31708954 PMCID: PMC6821719 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2019.01351] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/18/2019] [Accepted: 10/01/2019] [Indexed: 05/13/2023]
Abstract
The REproductive Meristem (REM) gene family encodes for transcription factors belonging to the B3 DNA binding domain superfamily. In Arabidopsis thaliana, the REM gene family is composed of 45 members, preferentially expressed during flower, ovule, and seed developments. Only a few members of this family have been functionally characterized: VERNALIZATION1 (VRN1) and, most recently, TARGET OF FLC AND SVP1 (TFS1) regulate flowering time and VERDANDI (VDD), together with VALKYRIE (VAL) that control the death of the receptive synergid cell in the female gametophyte. We investigated the role of REM34, REM35, and REM36, three closely related and linked genes similarly expressed in both female and male gametophytes. Simultaneous silencing by RNA interference (RNAi) caused about 50% of the ovules to remain unfertilized. Careful evaluation of both ovule and pollen developments showed that this partial sterility of the transgenic RNAi lines was due to a postmeiotic block in both female and male gametophytes. Furthermore, protein interaction assays revealed that REM34 and REM35 interact, which suggests that they work together during the first stages of gametogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Francesca Caselli
- Dipartimento di Bioscienze, Università degli Studi di Milano, Milan, Italy
| | | | - Otho Mantegazza
- Dipartimento di Bioscienze, Università degli Studi di Milano, Milan, Italy
| | - Rosanna Petrella
- Dipartimento di Bioscienze, Università degli Studi di Milano, Milan, Italy
| | - Giulia Leo
- Dipartimento di Bioscienze, Università degli Studi di Milano, Milan, Italy
| | - Andrea Guazzotti
- Dipartimento di Bioscienze, Università degli Studi di Milano, Milan, Italy
| | - Humberto Herrera-Ubaldo
- Laboratorio Nacional de Genómica para la Biodiversidad, Unidad de Genómica Avanzada, Centro de Investigación y de Estudios Avanzados del Instituto Politécnico Nacional, Irapuato, Mexico
| | - Stefan de Folter
- Laboratorio Nacional de Genómica para la Biodiversidad, Unidad de Genómica Avanzada, Centro de Investigación y de Estudios Avanzados del Instituto Politécnico Nacional, Irapuato, Mexico
| | | | - Martin M. Kater
- Dipartimento di Bioscienze, Università degli Studi di Milano, Milan, Italy
| | - Veronica Gregis
- Dipartimento di Bioscienze, Università degli Studi di Milano, Milan, Italy
- *Correspondence: Veronica Gregis,
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8
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Chang TG, Chang S, Song QF, Perveen S, Zhu XG. Systems models, phenomics and genomics: three pillars for developing high-yielding photosynthetically efficient crops. IN SILICO PLANTS 2019; 1:ISP-01-01-diy003. [PMID: 33381682 PMCID: PMC7731669 DOI: 10.1093/insilicoplants/diy003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/23/2018] [Revised: 12/17/2018] [Accepted: 02/13/2019] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
Recent years witnessed a stagnation in yield enhancement in major staple crops, which leads plant biologists and breeders to focus on an urgent challenge to dramatically increase crop yield to meet the growing food demand. Systems models have started to show their capacity in guiding crops improvement for greater biomass and grain yield production. Here we argue that systems models, phenomics and genomics combined are three pillars for the future breeding for high-yielding photosynthetically efficient crops (HYPEC). Briefly, systems models can be used to guide identification of breeding targets for a particular cultivar and define optimal physiological and architectural parameters for a particular crop to achieve high yield under defined environments. Phenomics can support collection of architectural, physiological, biochemical and molecular parameters in a high-throughput manner, which can be used to support both model validation and model parameterization. Genomic techniques can be used to accelerate crop breeding by enabling more efficient mapping between genotypic and phenotypic variation, and guide genome engineering or editing for model-designed traits. In this paper, we elaborate on these roles and how they can work synergistically to support future HYPEC breeding.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tian-Gen Chang
- National Key Laboratory of Plant Molecular Genetics, CAS Center for Excellence in Molecular Plant Sciences, Shanghai Institute of Plant Physiology and Ecology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 200031, China
| | - Shuoqi Chang
- State Key Laboratory of Hybrid Rice, HHRRC, Changsha 410125, China
| | - Qing-Feng Song
- National Key Laboratory of Plant Molecular Genetics, CAS Center for Excellence in Molecular Plant Sciences, Shanghai Institute of Plant Physiology and Ecology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 200031, China
| | - Shahnaz Perveen
- National Key Laboratory of Plant Molecular Genetics, CAS Center for Excellence in Molecular Plant Sciences, Shanghai Institute of Plant Physiology and Ecology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 200031, China
| | - Xin-Guang Zhu
- National Key Laboratory of Plant Molecular Genetics, CAS Center for Excellence in Molecular Plant Sciences, Shanghai Institute of Plant Physiology and Ecology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 200031, China
- Corresponding author’s e-mail address:
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Wang L, Zheng F, Zhang W, Zhong Y, Chen G, Meng X, Liu W. A copper-controlled RNA interference system for reversible silencing of target genes in Trichoderma reesei. BIOTECHNOLOGY FOR BIOFUELS 2018; 11:33. [PMID: 29449881 PMCID: PMC5806297 DOI: 10.1186/s13068-018-1038-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2017] [Accepted: 02/01/2018] [Indexed: 05/25/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Trichoderma reesei is a primary lignocellulosic enzyme producer in industry. However, the mechanisms underlying cellulase synthesis as well as other physiological processes are insufficiently understood partly due to the sophisticated process for its genetic manipulation. Target gene knockdown by RNA interference (RNAi) is a powerful tool for genetic research and biotechnology in eukaryotes including filamentous fungi. Previously reported RNAi system in T. reesei was either uncontrollable or only applicable in certain nutrition state. RESULTS In the present study, we incorporated the copper-responsive tcu1 promoter into an RNAi-mediated silencing system to develop a controllable RNAi-mediated silencing system in T. reesei. As the proof-of-concept, a prototrophic pyr4 gene, highly expressed cel7a and xyr1 genes induced by Avicel and a fab1 gene, whose knockout has proved to be intractable, were successfully knocked down in the absence of copper when the respective RNAi fragment was expressed. Importantly, the phenotype of RNAi strains was shown to be reversed easily to mimic the complementation for excluding any unwanted effects resulted from the random integration of the hpRNA cassette by adding copper in the media. Thus, this controllable RNAi-mediated silencing system can be turned on and turned off only depending on the absence and presence of copper ions in the media, respectively, and not on the nutritional states. CONCLUSIONS The copper-controlled RNA interference system represents an effective tool for reversible silencing of target genes in T. reesei. This reported strategy to conditionally knock down or turn off genes will contribute to our understanding of T. reesei gene functions, especially those that are difficult to be knocked out due to various reasons. In addition, this simple and cost-effective method holds great potential for the application in synthetic biology and genetic engineering of T. reesei.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lei Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Microbial Technology, School of Life Science, Shandong University, No.27 Shanda South Road, Jinan, 250100 Shandong People’s Republic of China
| | - Fanglin Zheng
- State Key Laboratory of Microbial Technology, School of Life Science, Shandong University, No.27 Shanda South Road, Jinan, 250100 Shandong People’s Republic of China
| | - Weixin Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Microbial Technology, School of Life Science, Shandong University, No.27 Shanda South Road, Jinan, 250100 Shandong People’s Republic of China
| | - Yaohua Zhong
- State Key Laboratory of Microbial Technology, School of Life Science, Shandong University, No.27 Shanda South Road, Jinan, 250100 Shandong People’s Republic of China
| | - Guanjun Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Microbial Technology, School of Life Science, Shandong University, No.27 Shanda South Road, Jinan, 250100 Shandong People’s Republic of China
| | - Xiangfeng Meng
- State Key Laboratory of Microbial Technology, School of Life Science, Shandong University, No.27 Shanda South Road, Jinan, 250100 Shandong People’s Republic of China
| | - Weifeng Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Microbial Technology, School of Life Science, Shandong University, No.27 Shanda South Road, Jinan, 250100 Shandong People’s Republic of China
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Brendolise C, Montefiori M, Dinis R, Peeters N, Storey RD, Rikkerink EH. A novel hairpin library-based approach to identify NBS-LRR genes required for effector-triggered hypersensitive response in Nicotiana benthamiana. PLANT METHODS 2017; 13:32. [PMID: 28465712 PMCID: PMC5408436 DOI: 10.1186/s13007-017-0181-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/14/2016] [Accepted: 04/19/2017] [Indexed: 05/03/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND PTI and ETI are the two major defence mechanisms in plants. ETI is triggered by the detection of pathogen effectors, or their activity, in the plant cell and most of the time involves internal receptors known as resistance (R) genes. An increasing number of R genes responsible for recognition of specific effectors have been characterised over the years; however, methods to identify R genes are often challenging and cannot always be translated to crop plants. RESULTS We present a novel method to identify R genes responsible for the recognition of specific effectors that trigger a hypersensitive response (HR) in Nicotiana benthamiana. This method is based on the genome-wide identification of most of the potential R genes of N. benthamiana and a systematic silencing of these potential R genes in a simple transient expression assay. A hairpin-RNAi library was constructed covering 345 R gene candidates of N. benthamiana. This library was then validated using several previously described R genes. Our approach indeed confirmed that Prf, NRC2a/b and NRC3 are required for the HR that is mediated in N. benthamiana by Pto/avrPto (prf, NRC2a/b and NRC3) and by Cf4/avr4 (NRC2a/b and NRC3). We also confirmed that NRG1, in association with N, is required for the Tobacco Mosaic Virus (TMV)-mediated HR in N. benthamiana. CONCLUSION We present a novel approach combining bioinformatics, multiple-gene silencing and transient expression assay screening to rapidly identify one-to-one relationships between pathogen effectors and host R genes in N. benthamiana. This approach allowed the identification of previously described R genes responsible for detection of avirulence determinants from Pseudomonas, Cladosporium and TMV, demonstrating that the method could be applied to any effectors/proteins originating from a broad range of plant pathogens that trigger an HR in N. benthamiana. Moreover, with the increasing availability of genome sequences from model and crop plants and pathogens, this approach could be implemented in other plants, accelerating the process of identification and characterization of novel resistance genes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cyril Brendolise
- Mt Albert Research Centre, The New Zealand Institute for Plant and Food Research Limited (PFR), 120 Mt Albert Road, Auckland, 1142 New Zealand
| | - Mirco Montefiori
- Mt Albert Research Centre, The New Zealand Institute for Plant and Food Research Limited (PFR), 120 Mt Albert Road, Auckland, 1142 New Zealand
| | - Romain Dinis
- INRA, Laboratoire des Interactions Plantes Micro-Organismes (LIPM), UMR441, CS52627, Chemin de Borde Rouge, 31326 Castanet-Tolosan, France
| | - Nemo Peeters
- INRA, Laboratoire des Interactions Plantes Micro-Organismes (LIPM), UMR441, CS52627, Chemin de Borde Rouge, 31326 Castanet-Tolosan, France
| | - Roy D. Storey
- Te Puke Research Centre, The New Zealand Institute for Plant and Food Research Limited (PFR), 412 No. 1 Road, RD 2, Te Puke, 3182 New Zealand
| | - Erik H. Rikkerink
- Mt Albert Research Centre, The New Zealand Institute for Plant and Food Research Limited (PFR), 120 Mt Albert Road, Auckland, 1142 New Zealand
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