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Weihs BJ, Heuschele DJ, Tang Z, York LM, Zhang Z, Xu Z. The State of the Art in Root System Architecture Image Analysis Using Artificial Intelligence: A Review. PLANT PHENOMICS (WASHINGTON, D.C.) 2024; 6:0178. [PMID: 38711621 PMCID: PMC11070851 DOI: 10.34133/plantphenomics.0178] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/23/2023] [Accepted: 03/27/2024] [Indexed: 05/08/2024]
Abstract
Roots are essential for acquiring water and nutrients to sustain and support plant growth and anchorage. However, they have been studied less than the aboveground traits in phenotyping and plant breeding until recent decades. In modern times, root properties such as morphology and root system architecture (RSA) have been recognized as increasingly important traits for creating more and higher quality food in the "Second Green Revolution". To address the paucity in RSA and other root research, new technologies are being investigated to fill the increasing demand to improve plants via root traits and overcome currently stagnated genetic progress in stable yields. Artificial intelligence (AI) is now a cutting-edge technology proving to be highly successful in many applications, such as crop science and genetic research to improve crop traits. A burgeoning field in crop science is the application of AI to high-resolution imagery in analyses that aim to answer questions related to crops and to better and more speedily breed desired plant traits such as RSA into new cultivars. This review is a synopsis concerning the origins, applications, challenges, and future directions of RSA research regarding image analyses using AI.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brandon J. Weihs
- United States Department of Agriculture–Agricultural Research Service–Plant Science Research, St. Paul, MN 55108, USA
- Department of Agronomy and Plant Genetics,
University of Minnesota, St. Paul, MN, 55108, USA
| | - Deborah-Jo Heuschele
- United States Department of Agriculture–Agricultural Research Service–Plant Science Research, St. Paul, MN 55108, USA
- Department of Agronomy and Plant Genetics,
University of Minnesota, St. Paul, MN, 55108, USA
| | - Zhou Tang
- Department of Crop and Soil Sciences,
Washington State University, Pullman, WA 99164, USA
| | - Larry M. York
- Biosciences Division and Center for Bioenergy Innovation,
Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN 37830, USA
| | - Zhiwu Zhang
- Department of Crop and Soil Sciences,
Washington State University, Pullman, WA 99164, USA
| | - Zhanyou Xu
- United States Department of Agriculture–Agricultural Research Service–Plant Science Research, St. Paul, MN 55108, USA
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2
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Mostafa S, Mondal D, Panjvani K, Kochian L, Stavness I. Explainable deep learning in plant phenotyping. Front Artif Intell 2023; 6:1203546. [PMID: 37795496 PMCID: PMC10546035 DOI: 10.3389/frai.2023.1203546] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/10/2023] [Accepted: 08/25/2023] [Indexed: 10/06/2023] Open
Abstract
The increasing human population and variable weather conditions, due to climate change, pose a threat to the world's food security. To improve global food security, we need to provide breeders with tools to develop crop cultivars that are more resilient to extreme weather conditions and provide growers with tools to more effectively manage biotic and abiotic stresses in their crops. Plant phenotyping, the measurement of a plant's structural and functional characteristics, has the potential to inform, improve and accelerate both breeders' selections and growers' management decisions. To improve the speed, reliability and scale of plant phenotyping procedures, many researchers have adopted deep learning methods to estimate phenotypic information from images of plants and crops. Despite the successful results of these image-based phenotyping studies, the representations learned by deep learning models remain difficult to interpret, understand, and explain. For this reason, deep learning models are still considered to be black boxes. Explainable AI (XAI) is a promising approach for opening the deep learning model's black box and providing plant scientists with image-based phenotypic information that is interpretable and trustworthy. Although various fields of study have adopted XAI to advance their understanding of deep learning models, it has yet to be well-studied in the context of plant phenotyping research. In this review article, we reviewed existing XAI studies in plant shoot phenotyping, as well as related domains, to help plant researchers understand the benefits of XAI and make it easier for them to integrate XAI into their future studies. An elucidation of the representations within a deep learning model can help researchers explain the model's decisions, relate the features detected by the model to the underlying plant physiology, and enhance the trustworthiness of image-based phenotypic information used in food production systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sakib Mostafa
- Department of Computer Science, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, SK, Canada
| | - Debajyoti Mondal
- Department of Computer Science, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, SK, Canada
| | - Karim Panjvani
- Global Institute for Food Security, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, SK, Canada
| | - Leon Kochian
- Global Institute for Food Security, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, SK, Canada
| | - Ian Stavness
- Department of Computer Science, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, SK, Canada
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Lescano MR, Macagno J, Berli CLA. Model-Based Analysis of Lactuca sativa Root Growth under the Action of Herbicides in Milli-Channel Arrays with In Situ Imaging. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2023; 71:13255-13262. [PMID: 37651710 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jafc.3c04105] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 09/02/2023]
Abstract
Extracting practical information from the large amounts of data gathered during the live imaging analysis of plant organs is a challenging issue. The present work investigates the use of the logistic growth model to analyze experimental data from root elongation assays performed in milli-fluidic devices with in situ imaging. Lactuca sativa was used as a bioindicator and was subjected to wide concentration ranges of four different herbicides: 2,4-D, atrazine, glyphosate, and paraquat. The model parameters were directly connected to standard indicators of toxicity and plant development, such as the LD50 and the absolute growth rate, respectively. In addition, it was found that realistic predictions of the maximum root length can be achieved about 60 h before the bioassay end point, which could significantly shorten the turnaround time. The combination of milli-fluidic devices, real-time imaging, and model-based data analysis becomes a powerful tool for environmental studies and ecotoxicity testing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maia R Lescano
- INTEC (Universidad Nacional del Litoral-CONICET), Predio CCT CONICET Santa Fe, RN 168, Santa Fe 3000, Argentina
| | - Joana Macagno
- INTEC (Universidad Nacional del Litoral-CONICET), Predio CCT CONICET Santa Fe, RN 168, Santa Fe 3000, Argentina
| | - Claudio L A Berli
- INTEC (Universidad Nacional del Litoral-CONICET), Predio CCT CONICET Santa Fe, RN 168, Santa Fe 3000, Argentina
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Solimani F, Cardellicchio A, Nitti M, Lako A, Dimauro G, Renò V. A Systematic Review of Effective Hardware and Software Factors Affecting High-Throughput Plant Phenotyping. INFORMATION 2023. [DOI: 10.3390/info14040214] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Plant phenotyping studies the complex characteristics of plants, with the aim of evaluating and assessing their condition and finding better exemplars. Recently, a new branch emerged in the phenotyping field, namely, high-throughput phenotyping (HTP). Specifically, HTP exploits modern data sampling techniques to gather a high amount of data that can be used to improve the effectiveness of phenotyping. Hence, HTP combines the knowledge derived from the phenotyping domain with computer science, engineering, and data analysis techniques. In this scenario, machine learning (ML) and deep learning (DL) algorithms have been successfully integrated with noninvasive imaging techniques, playing a key role in automation, standardization, and quantitative data analysis. This study aims to systematically review two main areas of interest for HTP: hardware and software. For each of these areas, two influential factors were identified: for hardware, platforms and sensing equipment were analyzed; for software, the focus was on algorithms and new trends. The study was conducted following the PRISMA protocol, which allowed the refinement of the research on a wide selection of papers by extracting a meaningful dataset of 32 articles of interest. The analysis highlighted the diffusion of ground platforms, which were used in about 47% of reviewed methods, and RGB sensors, mainly due to their competitive costs, high compatibility, and versatility. Furthermore, DL-based algorithms accounted for the larger share (about 69%) of reviewed approaches, mainly due to their effectiveness and the focus posed by the scientific community over the last few years. Future research will focus on improving DL models to better handle hardware-generated data. The final aim is to create integrated, user-friendly, and scalable tools that can be directly deployed and used on the field to improve the overall crop yield.
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Affiliation(s)
- Firozeh Solimani
- Institute of Intelligent Industrial Technologies and Systems for Advanced Manufacturing, National Research Council of Italy, Via Amendola 122 D/O, 70126 Bari, Italy
| | - Angelo Cardellicchio
- Institute of Intelligent Industrial Technologies and Systems for Advanced Manufacturing, National Research Council of Italy, Via Amendola 122 D/O, 70126 Bari, Italy
| | - Massimiliano Nitti
- Institute of Intelligent Industrial Technologies and Systems for Advanced Manufacturing, National Research Council of Italy, Via Amendola 122 D/O, 70126 Bari, Italy
| | - Alfred Lako
- Faculty of Civil Engineering, Polytechnic University of Tirana, Bulevardi Dëshmorët e Kombit Nr. 4, 1000 Tiranë, Albania
| | - Giovanni Dimauro
- Department of Computer Science, University of Bari, Via E. Orabona, 4, 70125 Bari, Italy
| | - Vito Renò
- Institute of Intelligent Industrial Technologies and Systems for Advanced Manufacturing, National Research Council of Italy, Via Amendola 122 D/O, 70126 Bari, Italy
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Macabuhay A, Arsova B, Watt M, Nagel KA, Lenz H, Putz A, Adels S, Müller-Linow M, Kelm J, Johnson AAT, Walker R, Schaaf G, Roessner U. Plant Growth Promotion and Heat Stress Amelioration in Arabidopsis Inoculated with Paraburkholderia phytofirmans PsJN Rhizobacteria Quantified with the GrowScreen-Agar II Phenotyping Platform. PLANTS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2022; 11:2927. [PMID: 36365381 PMCID: PMC9655538 DOI: 10.3390/plants11212927] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2022] [Revised: 10/23/2022] [Accepted: 10/25/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
High temperatures inhibit plant growth. A proposed strategy for improving plant productivity under elevated temperatures is the use of plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR). While the effects of PGPR on plant shoots have been extensively explored, roots-particularly their spatial and temporal dynamics-have been hard to study, due to their below-ground nature. Here, we characterized the time- and tissue-specific morphological changes in bacterized plants using a novel non-invasive high-resolution plant phenotyping and imaging platform-GrowScreen-Agar II. The platform uses custom-made agar plates, which allow air exchange to occur with the agar medium and enable the shoot to grow outside the compartment. The platform provides light protection to the roots, the exposure of it to the shoots, and the non-invasive phenotyping of both organs. Arabidopsis thaliana, co-cultivated with Paraburkholderia phytofirmans PsJN at elevated and ambient temperatures, showed increased lengths, growth rates, and numbers of roots. However, the magnitude and direction of the growth promotion varied depending on root type, timing, and temperature. The root length and distribution per depth and according to time was also influenced by bacterization and the temperature. The shoot biomass increased at the later stages under ambient temperature in the bacterized plants. The study offers insights into the timing of the tissue-specific, PsJN-induced morphological changes and should facilitate future molecular and biochemical studies on plant-microbe-environment interactions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Allene Macabuhay
- School of BioSciences, University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC 3010, Australia
- Institute for Bio- & Geosciences (IBG-2), Plant Sciences, Forschungszentrum Juelich GmbH, 52425 Juelich, Germany
- Institute of Crop Science and Resource Conservation, Department of Plant Nutrition, University of Bonn, 53115 Bonn, Germany
| | - Borjana Arsova
- Institute for Bio- & Geosciences (IBG-2), Plant Sciences, Forschungszentrum Juelich GmbH, 52425 Juelich, Germany
| | - Michelle Watt
- School of BioSciences, University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC 3010, Australia
| | - Kerstin A. Nagel
- Institute for Bio- & Geosciences (IBG-2), Plant Sciences, Forschungszentrum Juelich GmbH, 52425 Juelich, Germany
| | - Henning Lenz
- Institute for Bio- & Geosciences (IBG-2), Plant Sciences, Forschungszentrum Juelich GmbH, 52425 Juelich, Germany
| | - Alexander Putz
- Institute for Bio- & Geosciences (IBG-2), Plant Sciences, Forschungszentrum Juelich GmbH, 52425 Juelich, Germany
| | - Sascha Adels
- Institute for Bio- & Geosciences (IBG-2), Plant Sciences, Forschungszentrum Juelich GmbH, 52425 Juelich, Germany
| | - Mark Müller-Linow
- Institute for Bio- & Geosciences (IBG-2), Plant Sciences, Forschungszentrum Juelich GmbH, 52425 Juelich, Germany
| | - Jana Kelm
- Institute for Bio- & Geosciences (IBG-2), Plant Sciences, Forschungszentrum Juelich GmbH, 52425 Juelich, Germany
| | | | - Robert Walker
- School of BioSciences, University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC 3010, Australia
| | - Gabriel Schaaf
- Institute of Crop Science and Resource Conservation, Department of Plant Nutrition, University of Bonn, 53115 Bonn, Germany
| | - Ute Roessner
- School of BioSciences, University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC 3010, Australia
- Research School of Biology, The Australian National University, Acton, ACT 2601, Australia
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Cao P, Zhao Y, Wu F, Xin D, Liu C, Wu X, Lv J, Chen Q, Qi Z. Multi-Omics Techniques for Soybean Molecular Breeding. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:4994. [PMID: 35563386 PMCID: PMC9099442 DOI: 10.3390/ijms23094994] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/04/2022] [Revised: 04/22/2022] [Accepted: 04/28/2022] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Soybean is a major crop that provides essential protein and oil for food and feed. Since its origin in China over 5000 years ago, soybean has spread throughout the world, becoming the second most important vegetable oil crop and the primary source of plant protein for global consumption. From early domestication and artificial selection through hybridization and ultimately molecular breeding, the history of soybean breeding parallels major advances in plant science throughout the centuries. Now, rapid progress in plant omics is ushering in a new era of precision design breeding, exemplified by the engineering of elite soybean varieties with specific oil compositions to meet various end-use targets. The assembly of soybean reference genomes, made possible by the development of genome sequencing technology and bioinformatics over the past 20 years, was a great step forward in soybean research. It facilitated advances in soybean transcriptomics, proteomics, metabolomics, and phenomics, all of which paved the way for an integrated approach to molecular breeding in soybean. In this review, we summarize the latest progress in omics research, highlight novel findings made possible by omics techniques, note current drawbacks and areas for further research, and suggest that an efficient multi-omics approach may accelerate soybean breeding in the future. This review will be of interest not only to soybean breeders but also to researchers interested in the use of cutting-edge omics technologies for crop research and improvement.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pan Cao
- College of Agriculture, Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin 150030, China; (P.C.); (Y.Z.); (F.W.); (D.X.); (C.L.)
| | - Ying Zhao
- College of Agriculture, Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin 150030, China; (P.C.); (Y.Z.); (F.W.); (D.X.); (C.L.)
| | - Fengjiao Wu
- College of Agriculture, Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin 150030, China; (P.C.); (Y.Z.); (F.W.); (D.X.); (C.L.)
| | - Dawei Xin
- College of Agriculture, Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin 150030, China; (P.C.); (Y.Z.); (F.W.); (D.X.); (C.L.)
| | - Chunyan Liu
- College of Agriculture, Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin 150030, China; (P.C.); (Y.Z.); (F.W.); (D.X.); (C.L.)
| | - Xiaoxia Wu
- College of Agriculture, Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin 150030, China; (P.C.); (Y.Z.); (F.W.); (D.X.); (C.L.)
| | - Jian Lv
- Department of Innovation, Syngenta Biotechnology China, Beijing 102206, China
| | - Qingshan Chen
- College of Agriculture, Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin 150030, China; (P.C.); (Y.Z.); (F.W.); (D.X.); (C.L.)
| | - Zhaoming Qi
- College of Agriculture, Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin 150030, China; (P.C.); (Y.Z.); (F.W.); (D.X.); (C.L.)
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