Rational design of nonstoichiometric bioceramic scaffolds via digital light processing: tuning chemical composition and pore geometry evaluation

A narrative review of the factors that affect the mechanical properties of polymer-infiltrated ceramics used for dental restorations

OBJECTIVES

This study reviewed the literature on polymer-infiltrated ceramic networks (PICN), summarized factors influencing their mechanical properties, and examined future research directions.

BACKGROUND

Polymer-infiltrated ceramic networks integrate a porous ceramic framework with an interpenetrating resin composite, combining the advantages of organic and inorganic components. Their mechanical properties depend on multiple factors, including ceramic scaffold materials, structure, fabrication methods, resin compositions, and resin-ceramic bonding. However, challenges such as low flexural strength and suboptimal aesthetics limit their clinical application.

DATA & SOURCES

A literature search was conducted using Google Scholar, PubMed, and Web of Science. Keywords included "polymer-infiltrated ceramic networks," "porous ceramic," "ceramic network," and "resin composite." A total of 243 studies were identified, with 40 meeting the inclusion criteria after applying exclusion parameters.

CONCLUSIONS

The mechanical properties of PICNs are influenced by scaffold composition, structural features, and fabrication techniques. High-strength ZrO₂ offers advantages as a ceramic scaffold, while advanced fabrication methods such as three-dimensional printing and freeze-casting allow for controlled pore characteristics and biomimetic structures. Structural parameters such as porosity, pore shape, size, and connectivity play a critical role in mechanical performance. Despite these advancements, research on resin composition and ceramic surface treatment before resin infiltration remains limited. To enhance the mechanical and aesthetic performance of PICNs, further studies are needed to optimize ceramic scaffold design, resin formulations, and infiltration techniques. Improved resin-ceramic bonding strategies will be essential for advancing PICN-based restorations for long-term clinical success.

CLINICAL SIGNIFICANCE

Polymer-infiltrated ceramic networks provide a nature-inspired alternative for dental restorations. However, their clinical use is limited by low flexural strength and suboptimal aesthetics. Advances in ceramic fabrication, resin formulations, and bonding techniques are crucial for improving their durability, wear resistance, and overall clinical performance.

Enhanced bone regeneration with cerium-doped bioactive glasses: In vitro and in vivo study

BACKGROUND

Bioactive cerium-doped (Ce-BGs) glasses with proven antioxidant properties, which may reduce post-implant oxidative stress, were studied in vitro and in vivo to evaluate their application in bone regeneration. Based on the Kokubo (K) composition, they contain 3.6 and 5.3 mol% cerium (referred to as K3.6 and K5.3, respectively).

METHODS

Ce-BGs were synthesized by melting and sieved to produce granules (size range = 200-500 µm). In vitro studies were conducted against MLO-Y4 cells using direct Neutral Red (NR) and indirect Bromo-2-deoxyUridine (BrdU) assays to assess cell viability and proliferation respectively. In vivo studies were carried out using a New Zealand white rabbit model to evaluate bone healing potential.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

NR results showed a significant increase in cell viability for Ce-BGs: 77% for K and 79 and 85% for K3.6 and K5.3, after 24 h. After 72 h, cell viability decreased for K to 58% and increased for K3.6 and K5.3 (76% and 116% respectively). Cerium inhibits cell proliferation in BrdU assay as explainable by the increased durability of Ce-BGs. In vivo studies, after 30 and 60 days, revealed a delayed degradation for Ce-BGs that can stimulate the osteo-regeneration without inflammatory or degenerative effects. Moreover, the new bone area (NBA) was higher for Ce-BGs compared to control; after 60 days 32% for K5.3 versus 21% for K.

CONCLUSIONS

Ce-BGs granules show improved direct cytocompatibility in vitro and enhance the long-term bone remodeling process in vivo, contributing to a more controlled and effective bone healing compared to the K granules. This improved behavior can be linked to the antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties of cerium, that can assist bone regeneration and reduce implant-associated inflammation, and to their slower dissolution rate that supports the controlled release of ions. These results suggest Ce-BGs as a promising device for therapeutic applications on hard tissues.

Advancements in hydrogel design for articular cartilage regeneration: A comprehensive review

This review paper explores the cutting-edge advancements in hydrogel design for articular cartilage regeneration (CR). Articular cartilage (AC) defects are a common occurrence worldwide that can lead to joint breakdown at a later stage of the disease, necessitating immediate intervention to prevent progressive degeneration of cartilage. Decades of research into the biomedical applications of hydrogels have revealed their tremendous potential, particularly in soft tissue engineering, including CR. Hydrogels are highly tunable and can be designed to meet the key criteria needed for a template in CR. This paper aims to identify those criteria, including the hydrogel components, mechanical properties, biodegradability, structural design, and integration capability with the adjacent native tissue and delves into the benefits that CR can obtain through appropriate design. Stratified-structural hydrogels that emulate the native cartilage structure, as well as the impact of environmental stimuli on the regeneration outcome, have also been discussed. By examining recent advances and emerging techniques, this paper offers valuable insights into developing effective hydrogel-based therapies for AC repair.

Appreciable biosafety, biocompatibility and osteogenic capability of 3D printed nonstoichiometric wollastonite scaffolds favorable for clinical translation

Background

Alveolar bone destruction due to periodontal disease often requires a bone graft substitute to reconstruct the anatomical structures and biological functions of the bone tissue. Despite significant advances in the development of foreign ion-doped nonstoichiometric wollastonite bioceramics (CaSiO3, nCSi) for alveolar bone regeneration over the past decade, the in vivo biosafety and osteogenesis of nCSi scaffolds remain uncertain. In this study, we developed a customized porous nCSi scaffold to investigate the in vivo biocompatibility and osteogenic properties of nCSi bioceramics.

Methods

Six percent Mg-doped nCSi bioceramic scaffolds were fabricated by digital light processing (DLP), and the scaffold morphology, pore architecture, compressive strength, in vitro biodegradation, and apatite-forming ability of the bioceramic scaffolds were investigated systematically. Subsequently, an alveolar bone defect rabbit model was used to evaluate the biocompatibility and osteogenic efficacy of the nCSi bioceramics. Animal weight, hematological test, blood biochemical test, wet weight of the main organs, and pathological examination of the main organs were conducted. Micro-CT and histological staining were performed to analyze the osteogenic potential of the personalized bioceramic scaffolds.

Results

The nCSi scaffolds exhibited appreciable initial compressive strength (>30 MPa) and mild mechanical decay over time during in vitro biodissolution. In addition, the scaffolds induced apatite remineralization in SBF. Bioceramic scaffolds have been proven to have good biocompatibility in vivo after implantation into the alveolar bone defect of rabbits. No significant effects on the hematological indices, blood biochemical parameters, organ wet weight, or organ histopathology were detected from 3 to 180 days postoperatively. The porous scaffolds exhibited strong bone regeneration capability in the alveolar bone defect model of rabbits. Micro-CT and histological examination showed effective maintenance of bone morphology in the bioceramic scaffold group; however, depressed bone tissue was observed in the control group.

Conclusions

Our results suggest that personalized nCSi bioceramic scaffolds can be fabricated using the DLP technique. These newly developed strong bioceramic scaffolds exhibit good biocompatibility and osteogenic capability in vivo and have excellent potential as next-generation oral implants.

The translational potential of this article

Tissue-engineered strategies for alveolar bone repair require a bone graft substitute with appreciable biocompatibility and osteogenic capability. This article provides a systematic investigation of the in vivo biosafety and osteogenic property of nCSi to further development of a silicate-based bioceramics materials for clinical applications.

Recent advances in the development and applications of luminescent bacteria-based biosensors

Luminescent bacteria-based biosensors are widely used for fast and sensitive monitoring of food safety, water quality, and other environmental pollutions. Recent advancements in biomedical engineering technology have led to improved portability, integration, and intelligence of these biotoxicity assays. Moreover, genetic engineering has played a significant role in the development of recombinant luminescent bacterial biosensors, enhancing both detection accuracy and sensitivity. This review provides an overview of recent advances in the development and applications of novel luminescent bacteria-based biosensors, and future perspectives and challenges in the cutting-edge research, market translation, and practical applications of luminescent bacterial biosensing are discussed.

New insight into biodegradable macropore filler on tuning mechanical properties and bone tissue ingrowth in sparingly dissolvable bioceramic scaffolds

Structural parameters of the implants such as shape, size, and porosity of the pores have been extensively investigated to promote bone tissue repair, however, it is unknown how the pore interconnectivity affects the bone growth behaviors in the scaffolds. Herein we systematically evaluated the effect of biodegradable bioceramics as a secondary phase filler in the macroporous networks on the mechanical and osteogenic behaviors in sparingly dissolvable bioceramic scaffolds. The pure hardystonite (HT) scaffolds with ∼550 & 800 μm in pore sizes were prepared by digital light processing, and then the Sr-doped calcium silicate (SrCSi) bioceramic slurry without and with 30 % organic porogens were intruded into the HT scaffolds with 800 μm pore size and sintered at 1150 °C. It indicated that the organic porogens could endow spherical micropores in the SrCSi filler, and the invasion of the SrCSi component could not only significantly enhance the compressive strength and modulus of the HT-based scaffolds, but also induce osteogenic differentiation of bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells (BMSCs). The pure HT scaffolds showed extremely slow bio-dissolution in Tris buffer after immersion for 8 weeks (∼1 % mass decay); in contrast, the SrCSi filler would readily dissolve into the aqueous medium and produced a steady mass decay (>6 % mass loss). In vivo experiments in rabbit femoral bone defect models showed that the pure HT scaffolds showed bone tissue ingrowth but the bone growth was impeded in the SrCSi-intruded scaffolds within 4 weeks; however, the group with higher porosity of SrCSi filler showed appreciable osteogenesis after 8 weeks of implantation and the whole scaffold was uniformly covered by new bone tissues after 16 weeks. These findings provide some new insights that the pore interconnectivity is not inevitable to impede bone ingrowth with the prolongation of implantation time, and such a highly biodegradable and bioactive filler intrusion strategy may be beneficial for optimizing the performances of scaffolds in bone regenerative medicine applications.

Effects of Space Dimensionality within Scaffold for Bone Regeneration with Large and Oriented Blood Vessels

The internal structure of the scaffolds is a key factor for bone regeneration. In this study, we focused on the space dimensionality within the scaffold that may control cell migration and evaluated the effects on the size and orientation of blood vessels and the amount of bone formation in the scaffold. The carbonate apatite scaffolds with intrascaffold space allowing one-dimensional (1D), two-dimensional (2D), or three-dimensional (3D) cell migration were fabricated by 3D printing. These scaffolds had the same space size, i.e., distances between the struts (~300 µm). The scaffolds were implanted into the medial condyle of rabbit femurs for four weeks. Both the size and orientation degree of the blood vessels formed in the scaffolds allowing 1D cell migration were 2.5- to 4.0-fold greater than those of the blood vessels formed in the scaffolds allowing 2D and 3D cell migration. Furthermore, the amount of bone formed in the scaffolds allowing 1D cell migration was 1.4-fold larger than that formed in the scaffolds allowing 2D and 3D cell migration. These are probably because the 1D space limited the direction of cell migration and prevented the branching of blood vessels, whereas 2D and 3D spaces provided the opportunity for random cell migration and blood vessel branching. Thus, scaffolds with 1D space are advantageous for inducing large and oriented blood vessels, resulting in a larger amount of bone formation.

The effect of pore size on the mechanical properties, biodegradation and osteogenic effects of additively manufactured magnesium scaffolds after high temperature oxidation: An in vitro and in vivo study

The effects of pore size in additively manufactured biodegradable porous magnesium on the mechanical properties and biodegradation of the scaffolds as well as new bone formation have rarely been reported. In this work, we found that high temperature oxidation improves the corrosion resistance of magnesium scaffold. And the effects of pore size on the mechanical characteristics and biodegradation of scaffolds, as well as new bone formation, were investigated using magnesium scaffolds with three different pore sizes, namely, 500, 800, and 1400 μm (P500, P800, and P1400). We discovered that the mechanical characteristics of the P500 group were much better than those of the other two groups. In vitro and in vivo investigations showed that WE43 magnesium alloy scaffolds supported the survival of mesenchymal stem cells and did not cause any local toxicity. Due to their larger specific surface area, the scaffolds in the P500 group released more magnesium ions within reasonable range and improved the osteogenic differentiation of bone mesenchymal stem cells compared with the other two scaffolds. In a rabbit femoral condyle defect model, the P500 group demonstrated unique performance in promoting new bone formation, indicating its great potential for use in bone defect regeneration therapy.

Comparison of osteogenic capability of 3D-printed bioceramic scaffolds and granules with different porosities for clinical translation

Pore parameters, structural stability, and filler morphology of artificial implants are key factors influencing the process of bone tissue repair. However, the extent to which each of these factors contributes to bone formation in the preparation of porous bioceramics is currently unclear, with the two often being coupled. Herein, we prepared magnesium-doped wollastonite (Mg-CSi) scaffolds with 57% and 70% porosity (57-S and 70-S) via a 3D printing technique. Meanwhile, the bioceramic granules (57-G and 70-G) with curved pore topography (IWP) were prepared by physically disrupting the 57-S and 70-S scaffolds, respectively, and compared for in vivo osteogenesis at 4, 10, and 16 weeks. The pore parameters and the mechanical and biodegradable properties of different porous bioceramics were characterized systematically. The four groups of porous scaffolds and granules were then implanted into a rabbit femoral defect model to evaluate the osteogenic behavior in vivo. 2D/3D reconstruction and histological analysis showed that significant bone tissue production was visible in the central zone of porous granule groups at the early stage but bone tissue ingrowth was slower in the porous scaffold groups. The bone tissue regeneration and reconstruction capacity were stronger after 10 weeks, and the porous architecture of the 57-S scaffold was maintained stably at 16 weeks. These experimental results demonstrated that the structure-collapsed porous bioceramic is favorable for early-stage osteoconduction and that the 3D topological scaffolds may provide more structural stability for bone tissue growth for a long-term stage. These findings provide new ideas for the selection of different types of porous bioceramics for clinical bone repair.

Investigations into the effects of scaffold microstructure on slow-release system with bioactive factors for bone repair

In recent years, bone tissue engineering (BTE) has played an essential role in the repair of bone tissue defects. Although bioactive factors as one component of BTE have great potential to effectively promote cell differentiation and bone regeneration, they are usually not used alone due to their short effective half-lives, high concentrations, etc. The release rate of bioactive factors could be controlled by loading them into scaffolds, and the scaffold microstructure has been shown to significantly influence release rates of bioactive factors. Therefore, this review attempted to investigate how the scaffold microstructure affected the release rate of bioactive factors, in which the variables included pore size, pore shape and porosity. The loading nature and the releasing mechanism of bioactive factors were also summarized. The main conclusions were achieved as follows: i) The pore shapes in the scaffold may have had no apparent effect on the release of bioactive factors but significantly affected mechanical properties of the scaffolds; ii) The pore size of about 400 μm in the scaffold may be more conducive to controlling the release of bioactive factors to promote bone formation; iii) The porosity of scaffolds may be positively correlated with the release rate, and the porosity of 70%-80% may be better to control the release rate. This review indicates that a slow-release system with proper scaffold microstructure control could be a tremendous inspiration for developing new treatment strategies for bone disease. It is anticipated to eventually be developed into clinical applications to tackle treatment-related issues effectively.

Advanced hitchhiking nanomaterials for biomedical applications

Hitchhiking, a recently developed bio-inspired cargo delivery system, has been harnessed for diverse applications. By leveraging the interactions between nanoparticles and circulatory cells or proteins, hitchhiking enables efficient navigation through the vasculature while evading immune system clearance. Moreover, it allows for targeted delivery of nutrients to tissues, surveillance of the immune system, and pathogen elimination. Various synthetic nanomaterials have been developed to facilitate hitchhiking with circulatory cells or proteins. By combining the advantages of synthetic nanomaterials and circulatory cells or proteins, hitchhiking nanomaterials demonstrate several advantages over conventional vectors, including enhanced circulatory stability and optimized therapeutic efficacy. This review provides an overview of general strategies for hitchhiking, choices of cells and proteins, and recent advances of hitchhiking nanomaterials for biomedical applications.

Superiority of Triply Periodic Minimal Surface Gyroid Structure to Strut-Based Grid Structure in Both Strength and Bone Regeneration

The aging population has rapidly driven the demand for bone regeneration. The pore structure of a scaffold is a critical factor that affects its mechanical strength and bone regeneration. Triply periodic minimal surface gyroid structures similar to the trabecular bone structure are considered superior to strut-based lattice structures (e.g., grids) in terms of bone regeneration. However, at this stage, this is only a hypothesis and is not supported by evidence. In this study, we experimentally validated this hypothesis by comparing gyroid and grid scaffolds composed of carbonate apatite. The gyroid scaffolds possessed compressive strength approximately 1.6-fold higher than that of the grid scaffolds because the gyroid structure prevented stress concentration, whereas the grid structure could not. The porosity of gyroid scaffolds was higher than that of the grid scaffolds; however, porosity and compressive strength generally have a trade-off relationship. Moreover, the gyroid scaffolds formed more than twice the amount of bone as grid scaffolds in a critical-sized bone defect in rabbit femur condyles. This favorable bone regeneration using gyroid scaffolds was attributed to the high permeability (i.e., larger volume of macropores or porosity) and curvature profile of the gyroid structure. Thus, this study validated the conventional hypothesis using in vivo experiments and revealed factors that led to this hypothetical outcome. The findings of this study are expected to contribute to the development of scaffolds that can achieve early bone regeneration without sacrificing the mechanical strength.

The design of strut/TPMS-based pore geometries in bioceramic scaffolds guiding osteogenesis and angiogenesis in bone regeneration

The pore morphology design of bioceramic scaffolds plays a substantial role in the induction of bone regeneration. Specifically, the effects of different scaffold pore geometry designs on angiogenesis and new bone regeneration remain unclear. Therefore, we fabricated Mg/Sr co-doped wollastonite bioceramic (MS-CSi) scaffolds with three different pore geometries (gyroid, cylindrical, and cubic) and compared their effects on osteogenesis and angiogenesis in vitro and in vivo. The MS-CSi scaffolds were fabricated by digital light processing (DLP) printing technology. The pore structure, mechanical properties, and degradation rate of the scaffolds were investigated. Cell proliferation on the scaffolds was evaluated using CCK-8 assays while angiogenesis was assessed using Transwell migration assays, tube formation assays, and immunofluorescence staining. The underlying mechanism was explored by western blotting. Osteogenic ability of scaffolds was evaluated by alkaline phosphatase (ALP) staining, western blotting, and qRT-PCR. Subsequently, a rabbit femoral defect model was prepared to compare differences in the scaffolds in osteogenesis and angiogenesis in vivo. Cell culture experiments showed that the gyroid pore scaffold downregulated YAP/TAZ phosphorylation and enhanced YAP/TAZ nuclear translocation, thereby promoting proliferation, migration, tube formation, and high expression of CD31 in human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs) while strut-based (cubic and cylindrical pore) scaffolds promoted osteogenic differentiation in bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells and upregulation of osteogenesis-related genes. The gyroid pore scaffolds were observed to facilitate early angiogenesis in the femoral-defect model rabbits while the strut-based scaffolds promoted the formation of new bone tissue. Our study indicated that the pore geometries and pore curvature characteristics of bioceramic scaffolds can be precisely tuned for enhancing both osteogenesis and angiogenesis. These results may provide new ideas for the design of bioceramic scaffolds for bone regeneration.

3D Printing of Bone Substitutes Based on Vat Photopolymerization Processes: A Systematic Review

Treatment options for critically sized bone defects are currently limited to metal osteosynthesis, autologous bone grafting, or calcium-based implants to bridge the gap. Additive manufacturing techniques pose a possible alternative. The light-basedthree-dimensional printing process of vat photopolymerization (VP) is of particular interest since it enables the printing of complex scaffold architectures at high resolution. This review compares multiple vat photopolymerization processes as well as the employed resin components' interactions with musculoskeletal cells and tissue. The results show an outstanding printing capability, exceeding the potential of other printing methods. However, despite the availability of various biocompatible materials, neither the mechanical strength of bone nor the scale necessary for clinical application has been achieved so far when relying on single material constructs. One possible solution is the development of adaptive hybrid constructs produced with multimaterial VP.

Additive Manufacturing of Bioceramic Implants for Restoration Bone Engineering: Technologies, Advances, and Future Perspectives

Treating bone defects is highly challenging because they do not heal on their own inside the patients, so implants are needed to assist in the reconstruction of the bone. Bioceramic implants based on additive manufacturing (AM) are currently emerging as promising treatment options for restoration bone engineering. On the one hand, additively manufactured bioceramic implants have excellent mechanical properties and biocompatibility, which are suitable for bone regeneration. On the other hand, the designable structure and adjustable pores of additively manufactured bioceramic implants allow them to promote suitable cell growth and tissue climbing. Herein, this review unfolds to introduce several frequently employed AM technologies for bioceramic implants. After that, advances in commonly used additively manufactured bioceramic implants, including bioinert ceramic implants, bioactive ceramic implants, and bioceramic/organic composite implants, are categorized and summarized. Finally, the future perspectives of additively manufactured bioceramic implants, in terms of mechanical performance improvement, innovative structural design, biological property enhancement, and other functionalization approaches, are proposed and forecasted. This review is believed to provide some fundamental understanding and cutting-edge knowledge for the additive manufacturing of bioceramic implants for restoration bone engineering.

Adoptive Immunotherapy: A Human Pluripotent Stem Cell Perspective

The past decade has witnessed significant advances in cancer immunotherapy, particularly through the adoptive transfer of engineered T cells in treating advanced leukemias and lymphomas. Despite these excitements, challenges remain with scale, cost, and ensuring quality control of engineered immune cells, including chimeric antigen receptor T, natural killer cells, and macrophages. The advent of human pluripotent stem cells (hPSCs), including human embryonic stem cells and induced pluripotent stem cells, has transformed immunotherapy by providing a scalable, off-the-shelf source of any desired immune cells for basic research, translational studies, and clinical interventions. The tractability of hPSCs for gene editing could also generate homogenous, universal cellular products with custom functionality for individual or combinatory therapeutic applications. This review will explore various immune cell types whose directed differentiation from hPSCs has been achieved and recently adapted for translational immunotherapy and feature forward-looking bioengineering techniques shaping the future of the stem cell field.

Precisely Tuning the Pore-Wall Surface Composition of Bioceramic Scaffolds Facilitates Angiogenesis and Orbital Bone Defect Repair

Orbital bone damage (OBD) may result in severe post-traumatic enophthalmos, craniomaxillofacial deformities, vision loss, and intracranial infections. However, it is still a challenge to fabricate advanced biomaterials that can match the individual anatomical structure and enhance OBD repair in situ. Herein, we aimed to develop a selective surface modification strategy on bioceramic scaffolds and evaluated the effects of inorganic or organic functional coating on angiogenesis and osteogenesis, ectopically and orthotopically in OBD models. It was shown that the low thermal bioactive glass (BG) modification or layer-by-layer assembly of a biomimetic hydrogel (Biogel) could readily integrate into the pore wall of the bioceramic scaffolds. The BG and Biogel modification showed appreciable enhancement in the initial compressive strength (∼30-75%) or structural stability in vivo, respectively. BG modification could enhance by nearly 2-fold the vessel ingrowth, and the osteogenic capacity was also accelerated, accompanied with a mild scaffold biodegradation after 3 months. Meanwhile, the Biogel-modified scaffolds showed enhanced osteogenic differentiation and mineralization through calcium and phosphorus retention. The potential mechanism of the enhanced bone repair was elucidated via vascular and osteogenic cell responses in vitro, and the cell tests indicated that the Biogel and BG functional layers were both beneficial for in vitro osteoblastic differentiation and mineralization on bioceramics. Totally, these findings demonstrated that the bioactive ions or biomolecules could significantly improve the angiogenic and osteogenic capabilities of conventional bioceramics, and the integration of inorganic or organic functional coating in the pore wall is a highly flexible material toolbox that can be tailored directly to improve orbital bone defect repair.

Prodigiosin: a promising biomolecule with many potential biomedical applications

Pigments are among the most fascinating molecules found in nature and used by human civilizations since the prehistoric ages. Although most of the bio-dyes reported in the literature were discovered around the eighties, the necessity to explore novel compounds for new biological applications has made them resurface as potential alternatives. Prodigiosin (PG) is an alkaloid red bio-dye produced by diverse microorganisms and composed of a linear tripyrrole chemical structure. PG emerges as a really interesting tool since it shows a wide spectrum of biological activities, such as antibacterial, antifungal, algicidal, anti-Chagas, anti-amoebic, antimalarial, anticancer, antiparasitic, antiviral, and/or immunosuppressive. However, PG vehiculation into different delivery systems has been proposed since possesses low bioavailability because of its high hydrophobic character (XLogP3-AA = 4.5). In the present review, the general aspects of the PG correlated with synthesis, production process, and biological activities are reported. Besides, some of the most relevant PG delivery systems described in the literature, as well as novel unexplored applications to potentiate its biological activity in biomedical applications, are proposed.

Preparation of BMP-2/PDA-BCP Bioceramic Scaffold by DLP 3D Printing and its Ability for Inducing Continuous Bone Formation

Digital light processing (DLP)-based 3D printing is suitable to fabricate bone scaffolds with small size and high precision. However, the published literature mainly deals with the fabrication procedure and parameters of DLP printed bioceramic scaffold, but lacks the subsequent systematic biological evaluations for bone regeneration application. In this work, a biphasic calcium phosphate (BCP) macroporous scaffold was constructed by DLP-based 3D printing technique. Furthermore, bone morphogenetic protein-2 (BMP-2) was facilely incorporated into this scaffold through a facile polydopamine (PDA) modification process. The resultant scaffold presents an interconnected porous structure with pore size of ∼570 μm, compressive strength (∼3.6 MPa), and the self-assembly Ca-P/PDA nanocoating exhibited excellent sustained-release property for BMP-2. Notably, this BMP-2/PDA-BCP scaffold presents favorable effects on the adhesion, proliferation, osteogenic differentiation, and mineralization of bone marrow stromal cells (BMSCs). Furthermore, in vivo experiments conducted on rats demonstrated that the scaffolds could induce cell layer aggregation adjacent to the scaffolds and continuous new bone generation within the scaffold. Collectively, this work demonstrated that the BMP-2/PDA-BCP scaffold is of immense potential to treat small craniofacial bone defects in demand of high accuracy.