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Bou Ghanem GO, Wareham LK, Calkins DJ. Addressing neurodegeneration in glaucoma: Mechanisms, challenges, and treatments. Prog Retin Eye Res 2024; 100:101261. [PMID: 38527623 DOI: 10.1016/j.preteyeres.2024.101261] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/28/2023] [Revised: 03/15/2024] [Accepted: 03/19/2024] [Indexed: 03/27/2024]
Abstract
Glaucoma is the leading cause of irreversible blindness globally. The disease causes vision loss due to neurodegeneration of the retinal ganglion cell (RGC) projection to the brain through the optic nerve. Glaucoma is associated with sensitivity to intraocular pressure (IOP). Thus, mainstay treatments seek to manage IOP, though many patients continue to lose vision. To address neurodegeneration directly, numerous preclinical studies seek to develop protective or reparative therapies that act independently of IOP. These include growth factors, compounds targeting metabolism, anti-inflammatory and antioxidant agents, and neuromodulators. Despite success in experimental models, many of these approaches fail to translate into clinical benefits. Several factors contribute to this challenge. Firstly, the anatomic structure of the optic nerve head differs between rodents, nonhuman primates, and humans. Additionally, animal models do not replicate the complex glaucoma pathophysiology in humans. Therefore, to enhance the success of translating these findings, we propose two approaches. First, thorough evaluation of experimental targets in multiple animal models, including nonhuman primates, should precede clinical trials. Second, we advocate for combination therapy, which involves using multiple agents simultaneously, especially in the early and potentially reversible stages of the disease. These strategies aim to increase the chances of successful neuroprotective treatment for glaucoma.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ghazi O Bou Ghanem
- Vanderbilt Eye Institute, Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, TN, USA.
| | - Lauren K Wareham
- Vanderbilt Eye Institute, Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, TN, USA.
| | - David J Calkins
- Vanderbilt Eye Institute, Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, TN, USA.
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Almeida J, Costa TR, Vivas M, Monteiro C, Vaz FT, Ferreira Q, Prieto I, Pinto LA, Ferreira JT. Vitamin B 3 Supplementation for Optic Neuropathies: A Comprehensive Review. J Ocul Pharmacol Ther 2024; 40:111-116. [PMID: 38150537 DOI: 10.1089/jop.2023.0125] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Optic neuropathies, such as glaucoma, are some of the leading causes of irreversible blindness worldwide. There has been a lot of research for potential therapies that could attenuate and even reduce the impact of the pathological pathways that lead to the loss of retinal ganglion cells (RGCs). In recent years, vitamin B3 (nicotinamide) has gained some interest as a viable option for these neurodegenerative diseases due to its fundamental role in enhancing the mitochondria metabolism of the RGCs. This review focuses on elucidating the impact of vitamin B3 on retinal cells, especially when in a dysfunctional state like what happens in optic neuropathies, especially glaucoma. This review also summarizes the existing and future research on the clinical effects of vitamin B3 in these optic neuropathies, and determines appropriate recommendations regarding its dosing, efficacy, and eventual side effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Júlio Almeida
- Ophthalmology Department, Prof. Doutor Fernando Fonseca Hospital, EPE, Amadora, Portugal
| | - Tomás R Costa
- Ophthalmology Department, Prof. Doutor Fernando Fonseca Hospital, EPE, Amadora, Portugal
| | - Maria Vivas
- Ophthalmology Department, Prof. Doutor Fernando Fonseca Hospital, EPE, Amadora, Portugal
| | - Catarina Monteiro
- Ophthalmology Department, Prof. Doutor Fernando Fonseca Hospital, EPE, Amadora, Portugal
| | - Fernando T Vaz
- Ophthalmology Department, Prof. Doutor Fernando Fonseca Hospital, EPE, Amadora, Portugal
| | | | - Isabel Prieto
- Ophthalmology Department, Prof. Doutor Fernando Fonseca Hospital, EPE, Amadora, Portugal
| | - Luís A Pinto
- Ophthalmology Department, Centro Hospitalar Universitário Lisboa Norte, EPE, Lisbon, Portugal
- Visual Sciences Study Centre, Faculty of Medicine, University of Lisbon, Lisbon, Portugal
| | - Joana T Ferreira
- Ophthalmology Department, Centro Hospitalar Universitário Lisboa Norte, EPE, Lisbon, Portugal
- Visual Sciences Study Centre, Faculty of Medicine, University of Lisbon, Lisbon, Portugal
- Ophthalmology Department, Hospital CUF Descobertas, Lisbon, Portugal
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Zeng Y, Lin Y, Yang J, Wang X, Zhu Y, Zhou B. The Role and Mechanism of Nicotinamide Riboside in Oxidative Damage and a Fibrosis Model of Trabecular Meshwork Cells. Transl Vis Sci Technol 2024; 13:24. [PMID: 38546981 PMCID: PMC10981432 DOI: 10.1167/tvst.13.3.24] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/10/2023] [Accepted: 02/13/2024] [Indexed: 04/01/2024] Open
Abstract
Purpose To investigate the potential effects and mechanism of nicotinamide riboside (NR) on the oxidative stress and fibrosis model of human trabecular meshwork (HTM) cell line cells. Methods HTM cells were pretreated with NR, followed by the induction of oxidative injury and fibrosis by hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) and TGF-β2, respectively. Cell viability was tested using Hoechst staining and MTT assays, cell proliferation was assessed by EdU assay, and cell apoptosis was detected by flow cytometry and western blotting. DCFH-DA and DHE probes were used to measure the level of reactive oxygen species (ROS), and MitoTracker staining was used to measure the mitochondrial membrane potential (MMP). Fibrotic responses, including cell migration and deposition of extracellular matrix (ECM) proteins, were detected via Transwell assays, qRT-PCR, and immunoblotting. Results NR pretreatment improved the viability, proliferation, and MMP of H2O2-treated HTM cells. Compared to cells treated solely with H2O2, HTM cells treated with both NR and H2O2, exhibited a reduced rate of apoptosis and generation of ROS. Compared with H2O2 pretreatment, NR pretreatment upregulated expression of the JAK2/Stat3 pathway but inhibited mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) pathway expression. Moreover, 10-ng/mL TGF-β2 promoted cell proliferation and migration, which were inhibited by NR pretreatment. Both qRT-PCR and immunoblotting showed that NR inhibited the expression of fibronectin in a TGF-β2-induced fibrosis model. Conclusions NR has a protective effect on oxidative stress and fibrosis in HTM cells, which may be related to the JAK2/Stat3 pathway and MAPK pathway. Translational Relevance Our research provides the ongoing data for potential therapy of NAD+ precursors in glaucoma.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuping Zeng
- Department of Ophthalmology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Fujian Medical University, Fuzhou, Fujian, China
| | - Yijun Lin
- Department of Ophthalmology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Fujian Medical University, Fuzhou, Fujian, China
- Department of Ophthalmology, National Regional Medical Center, Binghai Campus of the First Affiliated Hospital, Fujian Medical University, Fuzhou, Fujian, China
- Fujian Institute of Ophthalmology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Fujian Medical University, Fuzhou, Fujian, China
- Fujian Provincial Clinical Medical Research Center of Eye Diseases and Optometry, The First Affiliated Hospital of Fujian Medical University, Fuzhou, Fujian, China
| | - Juhua Yang
- Department of Bioengineering and Biopharmaceutics, School of Pharmacy, Fujian Medical University, Fuzhou, China
| | - Xiaohui Wang
- Department of Ophthalmology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Fujian Medical University, Fuzhou, Fujian, China
- Department of Ophthalmology, National Regional Medical Center, Binghai Campus of the First Affiliated Hospital, Fujian Medical University, Fuzhou, Fujian, China
- Fujian Institute of Ophthalmology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Fujian Medical University, Fuzhou, Fujian, China
- Fujian Provincial Clinical Medical Research Center of Eye Diseases and Optometry, The First Affiliated Hospital of Fujian Medical University, Fuzhou, Fujian, China
| | - Yihua Zhu
- Department of Ophthalmology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Fujian Medical University, Fuzhou, Fujian, China
- Department of Ophthalmology, National Regional Medical Center, Binghai Campus of the First Affiliated Hospital, Fujian Medical University, Fuzhou, Fujian, China
- Fujian Institute of Ophthalmology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Fujian Medical University, Fuzhou, Fujian, China
- Fujian Provincial Clinical Medical Research Center of Eye Diseases and Optometry, The First Affiliated Hospital of Fujian Medical University, Fuzhou, Fujian, China
| | - Biting Zhou
- Department of Ophthalmology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Fujian Medical University, Fuzhou, Fujian, China
- Department of Ophthalmology, National Regional Medical Center, Binghai Campus of the First Affiliated Hospital, Fujian Medical University, Fuzhou, Fujian, China
- Fujian Institute of Ophthalmology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Fujian Medical University, Fuzhou, Fujian, China
- Fujian Provincial Clinical Medical Research Center of Eye Diseases and Optometry, The First Affiliated Hospital of Fujian Medical University, Fuzhou, Fujian, China
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Chiarugi A. Glaucoma: neuroprotection with NAD-based therapeutic interventions. Trends Pharmacol Sci 2023; 44:869-879. [PMID: 37880000 DOI: 10.1016/j.tips.2023.09.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/06/2023] [Revised: 09/22/2023] [Accepted: 09/26/2023] [Indexed: 10/27/2023]
Abstract
Clinical evidence shows that intraocular hypertension is not the primary pathogenetic event of glaucoma, whereas early neurodegeneration of retinal ganglion cells (RGCs) represents a key therapeutic target. Unfortunately, failure of clinical trials with neuroprotective agents, in particular those testing the anti-excitotoxic drug memantine, generated widespread skepticism regarding the possibility of counteracting neurodegeneration during glaucoma. New avenues for neuroprotective approaches to counteract glaucoma evolution have been opened by the identification of a programmed axonal degeneration (PAD) program triggered by increased nicotinamide mononucleotide (NMN)/NAD concentration ratio. Positive results of proof-of-concept clinical studies based on sustaining axonal NAD homeostasis facilitated the design of Phase 2/3 trials. Here, I share my opinion on how neurodegeneration in glaucoma should be put into context, together with an appraisal of the pharmacological rationale of NAD-supporting therapies for use during glaucoma progression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alberto Chiarugi
- Section of Clinical Pharmacology and Oncology, Department of Health Sciences, University of Florence, Florence, Italy; Headache Center and Clinical Pharmacology Unit, Careggi University Hospital, Florence, Italy.
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Liu S, Zhang W. NAD + metabolism and eye diseases: current status and future directions. Mol Biol Rep 2023; 50:8653-8663. [PMID: 37540459 DOI: 10.1007/s11033-023-08692-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/16/2023] [Accepted: 07/18/2023] [Indexed: 08/05/2023]
Abstract
Currently, there are no truly effective treatments for a variety of eye diseases, such as glaucoma, age-related macular degeneration (AMD), and inherited retinal degenerations (IRDs). These conditions have a significant impact on patients' quality of life and can be a burden on society. However, these diseases share a common pathological process of NAD+ metabolism disorders. They are either associated with genetically induced primary NAD+ synthase deficiency, decreased NAD+ levels due to aging, or enhanced NAD+ consuming enzyme activity during disease pathology. In this discussion, we explore the role of NAD+ metabolic disorders in the development of associated ocular diseases and the potential advantages and disadvantages of various methods to increase NAD+ levels. It is essential to carefully evaluate the possible adverse effects of these methods and conduct a more comprehensive and objective assessment of their function before considering their use.
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Affiliation(s)
- Siyuan Liu
- Department of Ophthalmology, Second Clinical Medical College, Lanzhou University, 730030, Lanzhou, VA, China
| | - Wenfang Zhang
- Department of Ophthalmology, The Second Hospital of Lanzhou University, 730030, Lanzhou, VA, China.
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Biţă A, Scorei IR, Ciocîlteu MV, Nicolaescu OE, Pîrvu AS, Bejenaru LE, Rău G, Bejenaru C, Radu A, Neamţu J, Mogoşanu GD, Benner SA. Nicotinamide Riboside, a Promising Vitamin B 3 Derivative for Healthy Aging and Longevity: Current Research and Perspectives. Molecules 2023; 28:6078. [PMID: 37630330 PMCID: PMC10459282 DOI: 10.3390/molecules28166078] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/27/2023] [Revised: 08/09/2023] [Accepted: 08/14/2023] [Indexed: 08/27/2023] Open
Abstract
Many studies have suggested that the oxidized form of nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD+) is involved in an extensive spectrum of human pathologies, including neurodegenerative disorders, cardiomyopathy, obesity, and diabetes. Further, healthy aging and longevity appear to be closely related to NAD+ and its related metabolites, including nicotinamide riboside (NR) and nicotinamide mononucleotide (NMN). As a dietary supplement, NR appears to be well tolerated, having better pharmacodynamics and greater potency. Unfortunately, NR is a reactive molecule, often unstable during its manufacturing, transport, and storage. Recently, work related to prebiotic chemistry discovered that NR borate is considerably more stable than NR itself. However, immediately upon consumption, the borate dissociates from the NR borate and is lost in the body through dilution and binding to other species, notably carbohydrates such as fructose and glucose. The NR left behind is expected to behave pharmacologically in ways identical to NR itself. This review provides a comprehensive summary (through Q1 of 2023) of the literature that makes the case for the consumption of NR as a dietary supplement. It then summarizes the challenges of delivering quality NR to consumers using standard synthesis, manufacture, shipping, and storage approaches. It concludes by outlining the advantages of NR borate in these processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrei Biţă
- Department of Pharmacognosy & Phytotherapy, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Medicine and Pharmacy of Craiova, 2 Petru Rareş Street, 200349 Craiova, Dolj County, Romania; (A.B.); (L.E.B.); (G.D.M.)
- Department of Biochemistry, BioBoron Research Institute, S.C. Natural Research S.R.L., 31B Dunării Street, 207465 Podari, Dolj County, Romania; (M.V.C.); (G.R.); (J.N.)
| | - Ion Romulus Scorei
- Department of Biochemistry, BioBoron Research Institute, S.C. Natural Research S.R.L., 31B Dunării Street, 207465 Podari, Dolj County, Romania; (M.V.C.); (G.R.); (J.N.)
| | - Maria Viorica Ciocîlteu
- Department of Biochemistry, BioBoron Research Institute, S.C. Natural Research S.R.L., 31B Dunării Street, 207465 Podari, Dolj County, Romania; (M.V.C.); (G.R.); (J.N.)
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Medicine and Pharmacy of Craiova, 2 Petru Rareş Street, 200349 Craiova, Dolj County, Romania
| | - Oana Elena Nicolaescu
- Department of Pharmaceutical Technology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Medicine and Pharmacy of Craiova, 2 Petru Rareş Street, 200349 Craiova, Dolj County, Romania;
| | - Andreea Silvia Pîrvu
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Medicine, University of Medicine and Pharmacy of Craiova, 2 Petru Rareş Street, 200349 Craiova, Dolj County, Romania;
| | - Ludovic Everard Bejenaru
- Department of Pharmacognosy & Phytotherapy, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Medicine and Pharmacy of Craiova, 2 Petru Rareş Street, 200349 Craiova, Dolj County, Romania; (A.B.); (L.E.B.); (G.D.M.)
| | - Gabriela Rău
- Department of Biochemistry, BioBoron Research Institute, S.C. Natural Research S.R.L., 31B Dunării Street, 207465 Podari, Dolj County, Romania; (M.V.C.); (G.R.); (J.N.)
- Department of Organic Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Medicine and Pharmacy of Craiova, 2 Petru Rareş Street, 200349 Craiova, Dolj County, Romania
| | - Cornelia Bejenaru
- Department of Pharmaceutical Botany, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Medicine and Pharmacy of Craiova, 2 Petru Rareş Street, 200349 Craiova, Dolj County, Romania; (C.B.); (A.R.)
| | - Antonia Radu
- Department of Pharmaceutical Botany, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Medicine and Pharmacy of Craiova, 2 Petru Rareş Street, 200349 Craiova, Dolj County, Romania; (C.B.); (A.R.)
| | - Johny Neamţu
- Department of Biochemistry, BioBoron Research Institute, S.C. Natural Research S.R.L., 31B Dunării Street, 207465 Podari, Dolj County, Romania; (M.V.C.); (G.R.); (J.N.)
- Department of Physics, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Medicine and Pharmacy of Craiova, 2 Petru Rareş Street, 200349 Craiova, Dolj County, Romania
| | - George Dan Mogoşanu
- Department of Pharmacognosy & Phytotherapy, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Medicine and Pharmacy of Craiova, 2 Petru Rareş Street, 200349 Craiova, Dolj County, Romania; (A.B.); (L.E.B.); (G.D.M.)
- Department of Biochemistry, BioBoron Research Institute, S.C. Natural Research S.R.L., 31B Dunării Street, 207465 Podari, Dolj County, Romania; (M.V.C.); (G.R.); (J.N.)
| | - Steven A. Benner
- Foundation for Applied Molecular Evolution (FfAME), 13709 Progress Avenue, Room N112, Alachua, FL 32615, USA;
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He M, Rong R, Ji D, Xia X. From Bench to Bed: The Current Genome Editing Therapies for Glaucoma. Front Cell Dev Biol 2022; 10:879957. [PMID: 35652098 PMCID: PMC9149310 DOI: 10.3389/fcell.2022.879957] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/20/2022] [Accepted: 04/25/2022] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Glaucoma is a group of optic neuropathies featured by degeneration of retinal ganglion cells and loss of their axons in the optic nerve. The only currently approved therapies focus on lowering intraocular pressure with medication and surgery. Over the previous few decades, technological advances and research progress regarding pathogenesis has brought glaucomatous gene therapy to the forefront. In this review, we discuss the three current genome editing methods and potential disease mechanisms of glaucoma. We further summarize different genome editing strategies that are being developed to target a number of glaucoma-related genes and pathways from four aspects including strategies to lower intraocular pressure, neuroprotection, RGC and optic nerve neuro-regeneration, and other strategies. In summary, genome therapy is a promising therapy for treating patients with glaucoma and has great potential to be widely applied in clinical practice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Meihui He
- Eye Center of Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, China.,Hunan Key Laboratory of Ophthalmology, Changsha, China.,National Clinical Research Center for Geriatric Disorders, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, China
| | - Rong Rong
- Eye Center of Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, China.,Hunan Key Laboratory of Ophthalmology, Changsha, China.,National Clinical Research Center for Geriatric Disorders, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, China
| | - Dan Ji
- Eye Center of Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, China.,Hunan Key Laboratory of Ophthalmology, Changsha, China.,National Clinical Research Center for Geriatric Disorders, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, China
| | - Xiaobo Xia
- Eye Center of Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, China.,Hunan Key Laboratory of Ophthalmology, Changsha, China.,National Clinical Research Center for Geriatric Disorders, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, China
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A reduced form of nicotinamide riboside protects the cochlea against aminoglycoside-induced ototoxicity by SIRT1 activation. Biomed Pharmacother 2022; 150:113071. [PMID: 35658237 DOI: 10.1016/j.biopha.2022.113071] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/06/2022] [Revised: 04/25/2022] [Accepted: 04/29/2022] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD+), a coenzyme that plays crucial roles in many cellular processes, is a potential therapeutic target for various diseases. Dihydronicotinamide riboside (NRH), a novel reduced form of nicotinamide riboside, has emerged as a potent NAD+ precursor. Here, we studied the protective effects and underlying mechanism of NRH on aminoglycoside-induced ototoxicity. METHODS Auditory function and hair-cell (HC) morphology were examined to assess the effects of NRH on kanamycin-induced hearing loss. The pharmacokinetic parameters of NRH were measured in plasma and the cochlea using liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry. NAD+ levels in organ explant cultures were assessed to compare NRH with known NAD+ precursors. Immunofluorescence analysis was performed to detect reactive oxygen species (ROS) and apoptosis. We analyzed SIRT1 and 14-3-3 protein expression. EX527 and resveratrol were used to investigate the role of SIRT1 in the protective effect of NRH against kanamycin-induced ototoxicity. RESULTS NRH alleviated kanamycin-induced HC damage and attenuated hearing loss in mice. NRH reduced gentamicin-induced vestibular HC loss. Compared with NAD and NR, NRH produced more NAD+ in cochlear HCs and significantly ameliorated kanamycin-induced oxidative stress and apoptosis. NRH rescued the aminoglycoside-induced decreases in SIRT1 and 14-3-3 protein expression. Moreover, EX527 antagonized the protective effect of NRH on kanamycin-induced HC loss by inhibition of SIRT1, while resveratrol alleviated HC damage caused by EX527. CONCLUSIONS NRH ameliorates aminoglycoside-induced ototoxicity by inhibiting HC apoptosis by activating SIRT1 and decreasing ROS. NRH is an effective therapeutic option for aminoglycoside-induced ototoxicity.
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Leung CKS, Ren ST, Chan PPM, Wan KHN, Kam AKW, Lai GWK, Chiu VSM, Ko MWL, Yiu CKF, Yu MCY. Correction to: Nicotinamide riboside as a neuroprotective therapy for glaucoma: study protocol for a randomized, double-blind, placebo-control trial. Trials 2022; 23:134. [PMID: 35144657 PMCID: PMC8832638 DOI: 10.1186/s13063-022-06079-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Christopher Kai Shun Leung
- Department of Ophthalmology, LKS Faculty of Medicine, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, People's Republic of China. .,Hong Kong Eye Hospital, Hong Kong, People's Republic of China. .,Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, People's Republic of China.
| | - Seraph Tianmin Ren
- Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, People's Republic of China
| | - Poemen Pui Man Chan
- Hong Kong Eye Hospital, Hong Kong, People's Republic of China.,Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, People's Republic of China
| | - Kelvin Ho Nam Wan
- Hong Kong Eye Hospital, Hong Kong, People's Republic of China.,Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, People's Republic of China
| | - Aziz Ka Wai Kam
- Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, People's Republic of China
| | - Gilda Wing Ki Lai
- Department of Ophthalmology, LKS Faculty of Medicine, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, People's Republic of China
| | - Vivian Sheung Man Chiu
- Department of Ophthalmology, LKS Faculty of Medicine, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, People's Republic of China
| | - Match Wai Lun Ko
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, People's Republic of China
| | - Cedric Ka Fai Yiu
- Department of Applied Mathematics, Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hong Kong, People's Republic of China
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