Effect of chronic intermittent hypoxia (CIH) on neuromuscular junctions and mitochondria in slow- and fast-twitch skeletal muscles of mice—the role of iNOS

Acetylome analyses provide novel insights into the effects of chronic intermittent hypoxia on hippocampus-dependent cognitive impairment

Introduction

Chronic intermittent hypoxia (CIH) can negatively affect hippocampal function through various molecular mechanisms. Protein acetylation, a frequently occurring modification, plays crucial roles in synaptic plasticity and cognitive processes. However, the global protein acetylation induced by CIH in the hippocampus and its specific effects on hippocampal function and behavior remain poorly understood.

Methods

To address this gap, we conducted a study using liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry to analyze the lysine acetylome and proteome of the hippocampus in healthy adult mice exposed to intermittent hypoxia for 4 weeks (as a CIH model) compared to normoxic mice (as a control).

Results

We identified and quantified a total of 2,184 lysine acetylation sites in 1,007 proteins. Analysis of these acetylated proteins revealed disturbances primarily in oxidative phosphorylation, the tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle, and glycolysis, all of which are localized exclusively to mitochondria. Additionally, we observed significant changes in the abundance of 21 proteins, some of which are known to be associated with cognitive impairments.

Discussion

This study helps to elucidate the molecular mechanisms underlying CIH-induced changes in protein acetylation in the hippocampus. By providing valuable insights into the pathophysiological processes associated with CIH and their impacts on hippocampal function, our findings contribute to a better understanding of the consequences of CIH-induced changes in protein acetylation in the hippocampus and the potential role of CIH in cognitive impairment.

Unraveling the causes of sarcopenia: Roles of neuromuscular junction impairment and mitochondrial dysfunction

Sarcopenia is a systemic skeletal muscle disease characterized by a decline in skeletal muscle mass and function. Originally defined as an age-associated condition, sarcopenia presently also encompasses muscular atrophy due to various pathological factors, such as intensive care unit-acquired weakness, inactivity, and malnutrition. The exact pathogenesis of sarcopenia is still unknown; herein, we review the pathological roles of the neuromuscular junction and mitochondria in this condition. Sarcopenia is caused by complex and interdependent pathophysiological mechanisms, including aging, neuromuscular junction impairment, mitochondrial dysfunction, insulin resistance, lipotoxicity, endocrine factors, oxidative stress, and inflammation. Among these, neuromuscular junction instability and mitochondrial dysfunction are particularly significant. Dysfunction in neuromuscular junction can lead to muscle weakness or paralysis. Mitochondria, which are plentiful in neurons and muscle fibers, play an important role in neuromuscular junction transmission. Therefore, impairments in both mitochondria and neuromuscular junction may be one of the key pathophysiological mechanisms leading to sarcopenia. Moreover, this article explores the structural and functional alterations in the neuromuscular junction and mitochondria in sarcopenia, suggesting that a deeper understanding of these changes could provide valuable insights for the prevention or treatment of sarcopenia.

Severely Damaged Freeze-Injured Skeletal Muscle Reveals Functional Impairment, Inadequate Repair, and Opportunity for Human Stem Cell Application

BACKGROUND

The regeneration of severe traumatic muscle injuries is an unsolved medical need that is relevant for civilian and military medicine. In this work, we produced a critically sized nonhealing muscle defect in a mouse model to investigate muscle degeneration/healing phases.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

We caused a freeze injury (FI) in the biceps femoris of C57BL/6N mice. From day 1 to day 25 post-injury, we conducted histological/morphometric examinations, an analysis of the expression of genes involved in inflammation/regeneration, and an in vivo functional evaluation.

RESULTS

We found that FI activates cytosolic DNA sensing and inflammatory responses. Persistent macrophage infiltration, the prolonged expression of eMHC, the presence of centrally nucleated myofibers, and the presence of PAX7+ satellite cells at late time points and with chronic physical impairment indicated inadequate repair. By looking at stem-cell-based therapeutic protocols of muscle repair, we investigated the crosstalk between M1-biased macrophages and human amniotic mesenchymal stem cells (hAMSCs) in vitro. We demonstrated their reciprocal paracrine effects where hAMSCs induced a shift of M1 macrophages into an anti-inflammatory phenotype, and M1 macrophages promoted an increase in the expression of hAMSC immunomodulatory factors.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings support the rationale for the future use of our injury model to exploit the full potential of in vivo hAMSC transplantation following severe traumatic injuries.

Normobaric hypoxia shows enhanced FOXO1 signaling in obese mouse gastrocnemius muscle linked to metabolism and muscle structure and neuromuscular innervation

Skeletal muscle relies on mitochondria for sustainable ATP production, which may be impacted by reduced oxygen availability (hypoxia). Compared with long-term hypoxia, the mechanistic in vivo response to acute hypoxia remains elusive. Therefore, we aimed to provide an integrated description of the Musculus gastrocnemius response to acute hypoxia. Fasted male C57BL/6JOlaHsd mice, fed a 40en% fat diet for six weeks, were exposed to 12% O2 normobaric hypoxia or normoxia (20.9% O2) for six hours (n = 12 per group). Whole-body energy metabolism and the transcriptome response of the M. gastrocnemius were analyzed and confirmed by acylcarnitine determination and Q-PCR. At the whole-body level, six hours of hypoxia reduced energy expenditure, increased blood glucose and tended to decreased the respiratory exchange ratio (RER). Whole-genome transcriptome analysis revealed upregulation of forkhead box-O (FOXO) signalling, including an increased expression of tribbles pseudokinase 3 (Trib3). Trib3 positively correlated with blood glucose levels. Upregulated carnitine palmitoyltransferase 1A negatively correlated with the RER, but the significantly increased in tissue C14-1, C16-0 and C18-1 acylcarnitines supported that β-oxidation was not regulated. The hypoxia-induced FOXO activation could also be connected to altered gene expression related to fiber-type switching, extracellular matrix remodeling, muscle differentiation and neuromuscular junction denervation. Our results suggest that a six-hour exposure of obese mice to 12% O2 normobaric hypoxia impacts M. gastrocnemius via FOXO1, initiating alterations that may contribute to muscle remodeling of which denervation is novel and warrants further investigation. The findings support an early role of hypoxia in tissue alterations in hypoxia-associated conditions such as aging and obesity.

Chronic intermittent hypoxia due to obstructive sleep apnea slightly alters nutritional status: a pre-clinical study

Obstructive sleep apnea syndrome (OSAS) is associated with chronic intermittent hypoxia (cIH) that causes disturbances in glucose and lipid metabolism. Animals exposed to cIH show lower body weight and food intake, but the protein-energy metabolism has never been investigated. Here, to address the gap, we studied the impact of cIH on nutritional status in rats. A total of 24 male Wistar rats were randomized into 3 groups (n = 8): a control group (Ctrl), a cIH group (cIH) exposed to cIH (30 s 21-30 s 5% fraction of inspired oxygen, 8 h per day, for 14 days), and a pair-fed group (PF) exposed to normoxia with food intake adjusted to the intake of the cIH group rats with anorexia. Body weight and food intake were measured throughout the study. After 14 days, the rats were euthanized, the organs were collected, weighed, and the liver, intestine mucosa, and muscles were snap-frozen to measure total protein content. Food intake was decreased in the cIH group. Body weight was significantly lower in the cIH group only (-11%, p < 0.05). Thymus and liver weight as well as EDL protein content tended to be lower in the cIH group than in the Ctrl and PF groups. Jejunum and ileum mucosa protein contents were lower in the cIH group compared to the PF group. cIH causes a slight impairment of nutritional status and immunity. This pre-clinical work argues for greater consideration of malnutrition in care for OSAS patients. Further studies are warranted to devise an adequate nutritional strategy.

Effects of Monoamino-Oxidase-A (MAO-A) Inhibition on Skeletal Muscle Inflammation and Wasting through Pancreatic Ductal Adenocarcinoma in Triple Transgenic Mice

Cancer cachexia describes a syndrome of muscle wasting and lipolysis that is still largely untreatable and negatively impacts prognosis, mobility, and healthcare costs. Since upregulation of skeletal muscle monoamine-oxidase-A (MAO-A), a source of reactive oxygen species, may contribute to cachexia, we investigated the effects of the MAO-inhibitor harmine-hydrochloride (HH, intraperitoneal, 8 weeks) on muscle wasting in a triple-transgenic mouse model of pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC) and wild type (WT) mice. Gastrocnemius and soleus muscle cryo-cross-sections were analyzed for fiber type-specific cross-sectional area (CSA), fraction and capillarization using ATPase- and lectin-stainings. Transcripts of pro-apoptotic, -atrophic, and -inflammatory signals were determined by RT-qPCR. Furthermore, we evaluated the integrity of neuromuscular junction (NMJ, pre-/post-synaptic co-staining) and mitochondrial ultrastructure (transmission electron microscopy). MAO-A expression in gastrocnemius muscle was increased with PDAC vs. WT (immunohistochemistry: p < 0.05; Western blot: by trend). PDAC expectedly reduced fiber CSA and upregulated IL-1β in both calf muscles, while MuRF1 expression increased in soleus muscle only. Although IL-1β decreased, HH caused an additional 38.65% (p < 0.001) decrease in gastrocnemius muscle (IIBX) fiber CSA. Moreover, soleus muscle CSA remained unchanged despite the downregulation of E3-ligases FBXO32 (p < 0.05) and MuRF1 (p < 0.01) through HH. Notably, HH significantly decreased the post-synaptic NMJ area (quadriceps muscle) and glutathione levels (gastrocnemius muscle), thereby increasing mitochondrial damage and centronucleation in soleus and gastrocnemius type IIBX fibers. Moreover, although pro-atrophic/-inflammatory signals are reversed, HH unfortunately fails to stop and rather promotes PDAC-related muscle wasting, possibly via denervation or mitochondrial damage. These differential adverse vs. therapeutic effects warrant studies regarding dose-dependent benefits and risks with consideration of other targets of HH, such as the dual-specificity tyrosine phosphorylation regulated kinases 1A and B (DYRK1A/B).

Inflammation and Wasting of Skeletal Muscles in Kras-p53-Mutant Mice with Intraepithelial Neoplasia and Pancreatic Cancer-When Does Cachexia Start?

Skeletal muscle wasting critically impairs the survival and quality of life in patients with pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC). To identify the local factors initiating muscle wasting, we studied inflammation, fiber cross-sectional area (CSA), composition, amino acid metabolism and capillarization, as well as the integrity of neuromuscular junctions (NMJ, pre-/postsynaptic co-staining) and mitochondria (electron microscopy) in the hindlimb muscle of LSL-KrasG12D/+; LSL-TrP53R172H/+; Pdx1-Cre mice with intraepithelial-neoplasia (PanIN) 1-3 and PDAC, compared to wild-type mice (WT). Significant decreases in fiber CSA occurred with PDAC but not with PanIN 1-3, compared to WT: These were found in the gastrocnemius (type 2x: −20.0%) and soleus (type 2a: −21.0%, type 1: −14.2%) muscle with accentuation in the male soleus (type 2a: −24.8%, type 1: −17.4%) and female gastrocnemius muscle (−29.6%). Significantly higher densities of endomysial CD68+ and cyclooxygenase-2+ (COX2+) cells were detected in mice with PDAC, compared to WT mice. Surprisingly, CD68+ and COX2+ cell densities were also higher in mice with PanIN 1-3 in both muscles. Significant positive correlations existed between muscular and hepatic CD68+ or COX2+ cell densities. Moreover, in the gastrocnemius muscle, suppressor-of-cytokine-3 (SOCS3) expressions was upregulated >2.7-fold with PanIN 1A-3 and PDAC. The intracellular pools of proteinogenic amino acids and glutathione significantly increased with PanIN 1A-3 compared to WT. Capillarization, NMJ, and mitochondrial ultrastructure remained unchanged with PanIN or PDAC. In conclusion, the onset of fiber atrophy coincides with the manifestation of PDAC and high-grade local (and hepatic) inflammatory infiltration without compromised microcirculation, innervation or mitochondria. Surprisingly, muscular and hepatic inflammation, SOCS3 upregulation and (proteolytic) increases in free amino acids and glutathione were already detectable in mice with precancerous PanINs. Studies of initial local triggers and defense mechanisms regarding cachexia are warranted for targeted anti-inflammatory prevention.