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Krause JL, Pierzchalski A, Chang HD, Zenclussen AC, Bauer M, Herberth G. Bisphenols, but not phthalate esters, modulate gene expression in activated human MAIT cells in vitro. Toxicol Rep 2023; 10:348-56. [PMID: 36923442 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxrep.2023.02.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/01/2022] [Revised: 02/15/2023] [Accepted: 02/28/2023] [Indexed: 03/05/2023] Open
Abstract
One route of human exposure to environmental chemicals is oral uptake. This is primarily true for chemicals that may leach from food packaging materials, such as bisphenols and phthalate esters. Upon ingestion, these compounds are transported along the intestinal tract, from where they can be taken up into the blood stream or distributed to mucosal sites. At mucosal sites, mucosal immune cells and in the blood stream peripheral immune cells may be exposed to these chemicals potentially modulating immune cell functions. In the present study, we investigated the impact of three common bisphenols and two phthalate esters on mucosal-associated invariant T (MAIT) cells in vitro, a frequent immune cell type in the intestinal mucosae and peripheral blood of humans. All compounds were non-cytotoxic at the chosen concentrations. MAIT cell activation was only slightly affected as seen by flow cytometric analysis. Phthalate esters did not affect MAIT cell gene expression, while bisphenol-exposure induced significant changes. Transcriptional changes occurred in ∼ 25 % of genes for BPA, ∼ 22 % for BPF and ∼ 8 % for BPS. All bisphenols down-modulated expression of CCND2, CCL20, GZMB and IRF4, indicating an effect on MAIT cell effector function. Further, BPA and BPF showed a high overlap in modulated genes involved in cellular stress response, activation signaling and effector function suggesting that BPF may not be safe substitute for BPA.
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Key Words
- BPA, bisphenol A
- BPF, bisphenol F
- BPS, bisphenol S
- Bisphenols
- CD, cluster of differentiation
- DEHP, di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate
- DINP, diisononyl phthalate
- DMSO, dimethyl sulfoxide
- EFSA, European Food Safety Agency
- EU, European Union
- FCS, fetal calf serum
- IFNg, interferon gamma
- IMDM, Iscove Modified Dulbecco Medium
- Immunomodulation
- In vitro model
- MAIT cells
- MAIT cells, mucosal-associated invariant T cells
- MeOH, methanol
- NHANES, National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey
- PBMC, peripheral blood mononuclear cell
- PE, phthalate ester
- Phthalate ester
- Plasticizers
- RT, room temperature
- SVHC, substance of very high concern
- TDI, tolerable daily intake
- TNF, tumor necrosis factor
- bpc, bacteria per cell
- bw, body weight
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Melo AM, Taher NAB, Doherty DG, Molloy EJ. The role of lymphocytes in neonatal encephalopathy. Brain Behav Immun Health 2021; 18:100380. [PMID: 34755125 PMCID: PMC8560973 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbih.2021.100380] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/21/2021] [Revised: 09/27/2021] [Accepted: 10/18/2021] [Indexed: 01/19/2023] Open
Abstract
Neonatal encephalopathy is a syndrome characterised by abnormal neurological function often caused by a hypoxic insult during childbirth. Triggers such as hypoxia-ischaemia result in the release of cytokines and chemokines inducing the infiltration of neutrophils, natural killer cells, B cells, T cells and innate T cells into the brain. However, the role of these cells in the development of the brain injury is poorly understood. We review the mechanisms by which lymphocytes contribute to brain damage in NE. NK, T and innate T cells release proinflammatory cytokines contributing to the neurodegeneration in the secondary and tertiary phase of injury, whereas B cells and regulatory T cells produce IL-10 protecting the brain in NE. Targeting lymphocytes may have therapeutic potential in the treatment of NE in terms of management of inflammation and brain damage, particularly in the tertiary or persistent phases.
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Key Words
- Blood-brain barrier, BBB
- Hypoxia-ischaemia encephalopathy, HIE
- Hypoxia-ischaemia, HI
- Hypoxic-ischaemia
- Immune response
- Lymphocytes
- Neonatal encephalopathy
- Neonatal encephalopathy, NE
- Regulatory T cells, Tregs
- T cell receptors, TCRs
- T helper, Th
- Therapeutic hypothermia, TH
- White Matter Injury, WMI
- activating transcription factor-6, ATF6
- central nervous system, CNS
- granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor, GM-CSF
- interleukin, IL
- major histocompatibility complex, MHC
- natural killer, NK cells
- tumour necrosis factor-alpha, TNF-α
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Affiliation(s)
- Ashanty M. Melo
- Discipline of Paediatrics and Immunology Trinity College Dublin, Crumlin, Dublin, Ireland
- Discipline of Immunology Trinity College Dublin, Crumlin, Dublin, Ireland
- Discipline of Trinity Translational Medicine Institute (TTMI), Trinity College Dublin, Crumlin, Dublin, Ireland
| | - Nawal AB. Taher
- Discipline of Paediatrics and Immunology Trinity College Dublin, Crumlin, Dublin, Ireland
- Discipline of Immunology Trinity College Dublin, Crumlin, Dublin, Ireland
- Discipline of Trinity Translational Medicine Institute (TTMI), Trinity College Dublin, Crumlin, Dublin, Ireland
| | - Derek G. Doherty
- Discipline of Immunology Trinity College Dublin, Crumlin, Dublin, Ireland
- Discipline of Trinity Translational Medicine Institute (TTMI), Trinity College Dublin, Crumlin, Dublin, Ireland
| | - Eleanor J. Molloy
- Discipline of Paediatrics and Immunology Trinity College Dublin, Crumlin, Dublin, Ireland
- Discipline of Immunology Trinity College Dublin, Crumlin, Dublin, Ireland
- Discipline of Trinity Translational Medicine Institute (TTMI), Trinity College Dublin, Crumlin, Dublin, Ireland
- Discipline of Trinity Research in Childhood Centre, Trinity College Dublin, Crumlin, Dublin, Ireland
- Discipline of Paediatrics, Children's Hospital Ireland (CHI) at Tallaght & Crumlin, Crumlin, Dublin, Ireland
- Discipline of Coombe Women and Infants University Hospital, Crumlin, Dublin, Ireland
- Discipline of Neonatology & National Children's Research Centre, Crumlin, Dublin, Ireland
- Discipline of National Children's Research Centre, Crumlin, Dublin, Ireland
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Gazali AM, Schroderus AM, Näntö-Salonen K, Rintamäki R, Pihlajamäki J, Knip M, Veijola R, Toppari J, Ilonen J, Kinnunen T. Mucosal-associated invariant T cell alterations during the development of human type 1 diabetes. Diabetologia 2020; 63:2396-2409. [PMID: 32880687 PMCID: PMC7527319 DOI: 10.1007/s00125-020-05257-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/20/2020] [Accepted: 07/14/2020] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
AIMS/HYPOTHESIS Mucosal-associated invariant T (MAIT) cells are innate-like T cells that recognise derivatives of bacterial riboflavin metabolites presented by MHC-Ib-related protein 1 (MR1) molecules and are important effector cells for mucosal immunity. Their development can be influenced by the intestinal microbiome. Since the development of type 1 diabetes has been associated with changes in the gut microbiome, this can be hypothesised to lead to alterations in circulating MAIT cells. Accordingly, peripheral blood MAIT cell alterations have been reported previously in patients with type 1 diabetes. However, a comprehensive analysis of the frequency and phenotype of circulating MAIT cells at different stages of type 1 diabetes progression is currently lacking. METHODS We analysed the frequency, phenotype and functionality of peripheral blood MAIT cells, as well as γδ T cells, invariant natural killer T (iNKT) cells and natural killer (NK) cells with flow cytometry in a cross-sectional paediatric cohort (aged 2-15) consisting of 51 children with newly diagnosed type 1 diabetes, 27 autoantibody-positive (AAb+) at-risk children, and 113 healthy control children of similar age and HLA class II background. The frequency of MAIT cells was also assessed in a separate cross-sectional adult cohort (aged 19-39) of 33 adults with established type 1 diabetes and 37 healthy individuals of similar age. RESULTS Children with newly diagnosed type 1 diabetes displayed a proportional increase of CD8-CD27- MAIT cells compared with healthy control children (median 4.6% vs 3.1% of MAIT cells, respectively, p = 0.004), which was associated with reduced expression of C-C chemokine receptor (CCR)5 (median 90.0% vs 94.3% of MAIT cells, p = 0.02) and β7 integrin (median 73.5% vs 81.7% of MAIT cells, p = 0.004), as well as decreased production of IFN-γ (median 57.1% vs 69.3% of MAIT cells, p = 0.04) by the MAIT cells. The frequency of MAIT cells was also decreased in AAb+ children who later progressed to type 1 diabetes compared with healthy control children (median 0.44% vs 0.96% of CD3+ T cells, p = 0.04), as well as in adult patients with a short duration of type 1 diabetes (less than 6 years after diagnosis) compared with control individuals (median 0.87% vs 2.19% of CD3+ T cells, p = 0.007). No alterations in γδ T cell, iNKT cell or NK cell frequencies were observed in children with type 1 diabetes or in AAb+ children, with the exception of an increased frequency of IL-17A+ γδ T cells in children with newly diagnosed diabetes compared with healthy control children (median 1.58% vs 1.09% of γδ T cells, p = 0.002). CONCLUSIONS/INTERPRETATION Changes in the frequency and phenotype of circulating MAIT cells were detectable before, at the onset and after diagnosis of type 1 diabetes in cross-sectional cohorts. Our results suggest a possible temporal association between peripheral blood MAIT cell alterations and the clinical onset of type 1 diabetes. Graphical abstract.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ahmad M Gazali
- Department of Clinical Microbiology, Institute of Clinical Medicine, University of Eastern Finland, Kuopio, Finland
- Faculty of Industrial Sciences and Technology, Universiti Malaysia Pahang, Pahang, Malaysia
| | - Anna-Mari Schroderus
- Department of Clinical Microbiology, Institute of Clinical Medicine, University of Eastern Finland, Kuopio, Finland
| | | | - Reeta Rintamäki
- Department of Medicine, Kuopio University Hospital, Kuopio, Finland
| | - Jussi Pihlajamäki
- Institute of Public Health and Clinical Nutrition, University of Eastern Finland, Kuopio, Finland
- Clinical Nutrition and Obesity Center, Kuopio University Hospital, Kuopio, Finland
| | - Mikael Knip
- Tampere Center for Child Health Research, Tampere University Hospital, Tampere, Finland
- Children's Hospital, University of Helsinki and Helsinki University Hospital, Helsinki, Finland
- Research Program for Clinical and Molecular Metabolism, Faculty of Medicine, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
- Folkhälsan Research Center, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Riitta Veijola
- PEDEGO Research Unit, Department of Pediatrics, Medical Research Center, Oulu University Hospital and University of Oulu, Oulu, Finland
| | - Jorma Toppari
- Department of Pediatrics, Turku University Hospital, Turku, Finland
- Institute of Biomedicine, Research Centre for Integrative Physiology and Pharmacology, University of Turku, Turku, Finland
| | - Jorma Ilonen
- Immunogenetics Laboratory, Institute of Biomedicine, University of Turku, Turku, Finland
- Clinical Microbiology, Turku University Hospital, Turku, Finland
| | - Tuure Kinnunen
- Department of Clinical Microbiology, Institute of Clinical Medicine, University of Eastern Finland, Kuopio, Finland.
- Eastern Finland Laboratory Centre (ISLAB), Kuopio, Finland.
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Kürtüncü M, Yılmaz V, Akçay Hİ, Türkoğlu R, Altunrende B, Çınar SA, Ulusoy C, Gündüz T, İçöz S, Kasap M, Çalışkan Z, Ötünç G, Eraksoy M, Tüzün E. Impact of fingolimod on CD4+ T cell subset and cytokine profile of relapsing remitting multiple sclerosis patients. J Neuroimmunol 2019; 337:577065. [PMID: 31526917 DOI: 10.1016/j.jneuroim.2019.577065] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/25/2019] [Revised: 09/07/2019] [Accepted: 09/10/2019] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
Fingolimod inhibits the egress of lymphocytes from lymphatic tissues and also directly affects their functions by modulation of the sphingosine-1-phosphate receptor 1 (S1P1). Our aim was to evaluate the impact of fingolimod on diverse CD4+ T cell subsets, and cytokines. Sixty-six relapsing remitting multiple sclerosis (RRMS) patients were treated with oral fingolimod (0.5 mg) for 6 months, and blood samples were collected at baseline, 3 months, and 6 months. Serum levels of seven cytokines and five chemokines were measured by multiplex immunoassay, and frequencies of peripheral blood mononuclear cell subsets were assessed by flow cytometry, and compared with those of 60 healthy controls. CCL2 (p = 0.039), and CCL5 (p = 0.001) levels were significantly higher in fingolimod-treated patients than healthy controls, whereas end-of-study serum levels of IL-6, IL-8, IL-17A, IL-22, IL-23, TNF-α, CXCL10, and CXCL13 were comparable to the baseline levels. Six months of fingolimod treatment reduced CD3+ T cell (mean ± standard deviation, 72.9% ± 5.5 vs. 60.1% ± 11.1, p < 0.001), CD4+ T cell (62.2% ± 8.5 vs. 24.6% ± 12.9, p < 0.001), CD4+CD25hi regulatory T cell (Treg) (3.4% ± 1.3 vs. 2.0% ± 1.4, p < 0.01), and CD19+ B cell (13.2% ± 5.8 vs. 5.3% ± 2.7, p < 0.001) frequencies, while CD8+ T cells (31.8% ± 7.8 vs. 57.8% ± 13.2, p < 0.001) were increased, and NK and NKT cells remained unchanged. The proportions of intracytoplasmic IL-4, IL-10, IFN-γ, and TNF-α-producing T cells were increased, whereas IL-17-producing cells remained relatively constant as measured by flow cytometry. Fingolimod appears to primarily diminish lymphocyte subsets involved in antigen presentation (CD19+ B and CD4+ T cells) rather than immune cells (CD8+ T, NK, and NKT cells) in charge of host defense against pathogens. In contrast, a relative increase is observed in pro- and anti-inflammatory cytokine-producing T helper subsets (IFN-γ, TNF-α, IL-4, and IL-10-producing CD4+ T cells), suggesting that effector T cells are suppressed to a lesser degree by S1P1 modulation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Murat Kürtüncü
- Department of Neurology, Istanbul Faculty of Medicine, Istanbul University, Istanbul, Turkey.
| | - Vuslat Yılmaz
- Department of Neuroscience, Aziz Sancar Institute for Experimental Medicine, Istanbul University, Istanbul, Turkey
| | - Halil İbrahim Akçay
- Department of Neurology, Istanbul Faculty of Medicine, Istanbul University, Istanbul, Turkey
| | - Recai Türkoğlu
- Department of Neurology, Saglik Bilimleri University, Istanbul, Turkey
| | - Burcu Altunrende
- Department of Neurology, Faculty of Medicine, Istanbul Bilim University, Istanbul, Turkey
| | - Suzan Adın Çınar
- Department of Immunology, Aziz Sancar Institute for Experimental Medicine, Istanbul University, Istanbul, Turkey
| | - Canan Ulusoy
- Department of Neuroscience, Aziz Sancar Institute for Experimental Medicine, Istanbul University, Istanbul, Turkey
| | - Tuncay Gündüz
- Department of Neurology, Istanbul Faculty of Medicine, Istanbul University, Istanbul, Turkey
| | - Sema İçöz
- Department of Neurology, Istanbul Faculty of Medicine, Istanbul University, Istanbul, Turkey
| | | | | | | | - Mefküre Eraksoy
- Department of Neurology, Istanbul Faculty of Medicine, Istanbul University, Istanbul, Turkey
| | - Erdem Tüzün
- Department of Neuroscience, Aziz Sancar Institute for Experimental Medicine, Istanbul University, Istanbul, Turkey
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Van Kaer L, Postoak JL, Wang C, Yang G, Wu L. Innate, innate-like and adaptive lymphocytes in the pathogenesis of MS and EAE. Cell Mol Immunol 2019; 16:531-539. [PMID: 30874627 DOI: 10.1038/s41423-019-0221-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 82] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2019] [Accepted: 02/22/2019] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a chronic inflammatory disease of the central nervous system (CNS) in which the immune system damages the protective insulation surrounding the nerve fibers that project from neurons. A hallmark of MS and its animal model, experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE), is autoimmunity against proteins of the myelin sheath. Most studies in this field have focused on the roles of CD4+ T lymphocytes, which form part of the adaptive immune system as both mediators and regulators in disease pathogenesis. Consequently, the treatments for MS often target the inflammatory CD4+ T-cell responses. However, many other lymphocyte subsets contribute to the pathophysiology of MS and EAE, and these subsets include CD8+ T cells and B cells of the adaptive immune system, lymphocytes of the innate immune system such as natural killer cells, and subsets of innate-like T and B lymphocytes such as γδ T cells, natural killer T cells, and mucosal-associated invariant T cells. Several of these lymphocyte subsets can act as mediators of CNS inflammation, whereas others exhibit immunoregulatory functions in disease. Importantly, the efficacy of some MS treatments might be mediated in part by effects on lymphocytes other than CD4+ T cells. Here we review the contributions of distinct subsets of lymphocytes on the pathogenesis of MS and EAE, with an emphasis on lymphocytes other than CD4+ T cells. A better understanding of the distinct lymphocyte subsets that contribute to the pathophysiology of MS and its experimental models will inform the development of novel therapeutic approaches.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luc Van Kaer
- Department of Pathology, Microbiology and Immunology, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, TN, 37232, USA.
| | - Joshua L Postoak
- Department of Pathology, Microbiology and Immunology, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, TN, 37232, USA
| | - Chuan Wang
- Department of Pathology, Microbiology and Immunology, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, TN, 37232, USA
| | - Guan Yang
- Department of Pathology, Microbiology and Immunology, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, TN, 37232, USA
| | - Lan Wu
- Department of Pathology, Microbiology and Immunology, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, TN, 37232, USA
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Abstract
Mucosal-associated invariant T (MAIT) cells are innate T cells restricted by MHC-related molecule 1 (MR1). MAIT cells express semi-invariant T-cell receptors TRAV1-2-TRAJ33/12/20 in humans and TRAV1-TRAJ33 in mice. MAIT cells recognize vitamin B2 biosynthesis derivatives presented by MR1. Similar to other innate lymphocytes, MAIT cells are also activated by cytokines in the absence of exogenous antigens. MAIT cells have the capacity to produce cytokines, such as IFNγ, TNFα, and IL-17, and cytotoxic proteins, including perforin and granzyme B. MAIT cells were originally named after their preferential location in the mucosal tissue of the gut, but they are also abundant in other peripheral organs, including the liver and lungs. In humans, the frequency of MAIT cells is high in peripheral blood, and these cells constitute approximately 5% of circulating CD3+ cells. Their abundance in tissues and rapid activation following stimulation have led to great interest in their function in various types of immune diseases. In this review, first, we will briefly introduce key information of MAIT cell biology required for better understating their roles in immune responses, and then describe how MAIT cells are associated with autoimmune and other immune diseases in humans. Moreover, we will discuss their functions based on information from animal models of autoimmune and immunological diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Asako Chiba
- Department of Immunology, Juntendo University School of Medicine, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Goh Murayama
- Department of Immunology, Juntendo University School of Medicine, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Sachiko Miyake
- Department of Immunology, Juntendo University School of Medicine, Tokyo, Japan
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Abstract
Although antibiotics to inhibit bacterial growth and small compounds to interfere with the productive life cycle of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) have successfully been used to control HIV infection, the recent emergence of the drug-resistant bacteria and viruses poses a serious concern for worldwide public health. Despite intensive scrutiny in developing novel antibiotics and drugs to overcome these problems, there is a dilemma such that once novel antibiotics are launched in markets, sooner or later antibiotic-resistant strains emerge. Thus, it is imperative to develop novel methods to avoid this vicious circle. Here, we discuss the possibility of using induced pluripotent stem cell (iPSC)-derived, innate-like T cells to control infection and potential application of these cells for cancer treatment. Mucosal-associated invariant T (MAIT) cells belong to an emerging family of innate-like T cells that link innate immunity to adaptive immunity. MAIT cells exert effector functions without priming and clonal expansion like innate immune cells and relay the immune response to adaptive immune cells through production of relevant cytokines. With these characteristics, MAIT cells are implicated in a wide range of human diseases such as autoimmune, infectious, and metabolic diseases, and cancer. Circulating MAIT cells are often depleted by these diseases and often remain depleted even after appropriate remedy because MAIT cells are susceptible to activation-induced cell death and poor at proliferation in vivo, which threatens the integrity of the immune system. Because MAIT cells have a pivotal role in human immunity, supplementation of MAIT cells into immunocompromised patients suffering from severe depletion of these cells may help recapitulate or recover immunocompetence. The generation of MAIT cells from human iPSCs has made it possible to procure MAIT cells lost from disease. Such technology creates new avenues for cell therapy and regenerative medicine for difficult-to-cure infectious diseases and cancer and contributes to improvement of our welfare.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hiroshi Wakao
- International Epidemiology, Dokkyo Medical University, Mibu, Japan
| | - Chie Sugimoto
- International Epidemiology, Dokkyo Medical University, Mibu, Japan
| | - Shinzo Kimura
- International Epidemiology, Dokkyo Medical University, Mibu, Japan
| | - Rika Wakao
- Office of Regulatory Science, Pharmaceutical and Medical Device Agency (PMDA), Tokyo, Japan
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Abstract
Current advances in immunology have led to the identification of a population of novel innate immune T cells, called mucosa-associated invariant T (MAIT) cells. The cells in humans express an invariant TCRα chain (Vα7.2-Jα33) paired with a limited subset of TCRβ chains (Vβ2, 13 and 22), are restricted by the MHC class I (MH1)-related (MR)-1, and recognize molecules that are produced in the bacterial riboflavin (vitamin B2) biosynthetic pathway. They are present in the circulation, liver and at various mucosal sites (i.e. intestine, lungs and female reproductive tract, etc.). They kill host cells infected with bacteria and yeast, and secrete soluble mediators such as TNF-α, IFN-γ, IL-17, etc. The cells regulate immune responses and inflammation associated with a wide spectrum of acute and chronic diseases in humans. Since their discovery in 1993, significant advances have been made in understanding biology of MAIT cells and the potential role of these cells in the pathogenesis of autoimmune, inflammatory and infectious diseases as well as cancer in humans. The purpose of this review is to provide a current state of our knowledge about MAIT cell biology and delineate their role in autoimmune and inflammatory diseases (sterile or caused by infectious agents) and cancer in humans. A better understanding of the role of MAIT cells in human diseases may lead to novel ways of immunotherapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vijay Kumar
- a Department of Paediatrics and Child Care , Children's Health Queensland Clinical unit School of Medicine, Mater Research, Faculty of Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, University of Queensland , ST Lucia, Brisbane , Queensland , Australia
| | - Ali Ahmad
- b Laboratory of Innate Immunity, CHU Ste-Justine/Department of Microbiology , Infectious Diseases & Immunology, University of Montreal , Montreal , Quebec , Canada
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