Olfactomedin-4 autoantibodies give unusual c-ANCA staining patterns with reactivity to a subpopulation of neutrophils

The Role of Crosstalk between Nets and Keratinocytes in Skin Immunity

The skin is the principal barrier against pathogens. Skin-resident cells, especially keratinocytes, play essential roles in skin immunity. Damage to the integrity of the skin barrier triggers the localized release of proinflammatory factors from keratinocytes, which attract neutrophils. These infiltrating neutrophils in turn release cytokines to modulate keratinocyte function, thereby amplifying skin inflammation. In addition, neutrophils produce neutrophil extracellular traps in a process called NETosis. Notably, crosstalk between neutrophils and keratinocytes is a prominent feature of skin infection eradication and autoimmune disorder development. In this paper, we review research progress on neutrophil extracellular traps in cutaneous immunity, with a particular emphasis on their modulation of keratinocytes. Moreover, we discuss the implications of neutrophil heterogeneity for immune defense and disease development and treatment.

Beyond host defense and tissue injury: the emerging role of neutrophils in tissue repair

Neutrophils, the most abundant immune cells in human blood, play a fundamental role in host defense against invading pathogens and tissue injury. Neutrophils carry potentially lethal weaponry to the affected site. Inadvertent and perpetual neutrophil activation could lead to nonresolving inflammation and tissue damage, a unifying mechanism of many common diseases. The prevailing view emphasizes the dichotomy of their function, host defense versus tissue damage. However, tissue injury may also persist during neutropenia, which is associated with disease severity and poor outcome. Numerous studies highlight neutrophil phenotypic heterogeneity and functional versatility, indicating that neutrophils play more complex roles than previously thought. Emerging evidence indicates that neutrophils actively orchestrate resolution of inflammation and tissue repair and facilitate return to homeostasis. Thus, neutrophils mobilize multiple mechanisms to limit the inflammatory reaction, assure debris removal, matrix remodeling, cytokine scavenging, macrophage reprogramming, and angiogenesis. In this review, we will summarize the homeostatic and tissue-reparative functions and mechanisms of neutrophils across organs. We will also discuss how the healing power of neutrophils might be harnessed to develop novel resolution and repair-promoting therapies while maintaining their defense functions.

Distinct roles for interleukin-23 receptor signaling in regulatory T cells in sporadic and inflammation-associated carcinogenesis

Introduction

The pro-inflammatory cytokine interleukin-23 (IL-23) has been implicated in colorectal cancer (CRC). Yet, the cell-specific contributions of IL-23 receptor (IL-23R) signaling in CRC remain unknown. One of the cell types that highly expresses IL-23R are colonic regulatory T cells (Treg cells). The aim of this study was to define the contribution of Treg cell-specific IL-23R signaling in sporadic and inflammation-associated CRC.

Methods

In mice, the role of IL-23R in Treg cells in colitis-associated cancer (CAC) was investigated using azoxymethane/dextran sodium sulphate in wild-type Treg cell reporter mice (WT, Foxp3 YFP-iCre), and mice harboring a Treg cell-specific deletion of IL-23 (Il23r ΔTreg). The role of IL-23R signaling in Treg cells in sporadic CRC was examined utilizing orthotopic injection of the syngeneic colon cancer cell line MC-38 submucosally into the colon/rectum of mice. The function of macrophages was studied using clodronate. Finally, single-cell RNA-seq of a previously published dataset in human sporadic cancer was reanalyzed to corroborate these findings.

Results

In CAC, Il23r ΔTreg mice had increased tumor size and increased dysplasia compared to WT mice that was associated with decreased tumor-infiltrating macrophages. In the sporadic cancer model, Il23r ΔTreg mice had increased survival and decreased tumor size compared to WT mice. Additionally, MC-38 tumors of Il23r ΔTreg mice exhibited a higher frequency of pro-inflammatory macrophages and IL-17 producing CD4+ T cells. The decreased tumor size in Il23r ΔTreg mice was macrophage-dependent. These data suggest that loss of IL-23R signaling in Treg cells permits IL-17 production by CD4+ T cells that in turn promotes pro-inflammatory macrophages to clear tumors. Finally, analysis of TCGA data and single-cell RNA-seq analysis of a previously published dataset in human sporadic cancer, revealed that IL23R was highly expressed in CRC compared to other cancers and specifically in tumor-associated Treg cells.

Conclusion

Inflammation in colorectal carcinogenesis differs with respect to the contribution of IL-23R signaling in regulatory T cells.

OLFM4 deficiency delays the progression of colitis to colorectal cancer by abrogating PMN-MDSCs recruitment

Chronic inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) is strongly associated with the development of colitis-associated tumorigenesis (CAT). Despite recent advances in the understanding of polymorphonuclear myeloid-derived suppressor cell (PMN-MDSC) responses in cancer, the mechanisms of these cells during this process remain largely uncharacterized. Here, we discovered a glycoprotein, olfactomedin-4 (OLFM4), was highly expressed in PMN-MDSCs from colitis to colorectal cancer (CRC), and its expression level and PMN-MDSC population positively correlated with the progression of IBD to CRC. Moreover, mice lacking OLFM4 in myeloid cells showed poor recruitment of PMN-MDSCs, impaired intestinal homeostasis, and delayed development from IBD to CRC, and increased response to anti-PD1 therapy. The main mechanism of OLFM4-mediated PMN-MDSC activity involved the NF-κB/PTGS2 pathway, through the binding of LGALS3, a galactoside-binding protein expressed on PMN-MDSCs. Our results showed that the OLFM4/NF-κB/PTGS2 pathway promoted PMN-MDSC recruitment, which played an essential role in the maintenance of intestinal homeostasis, but showed resistance to anti-PD1 therapy in CRC.

Microglia-Derived Olfactomedin-like 3 Promotes Pro-Tumorigenic Microglial Function and Malignant Features of Glioma Cells

Under the influence of transforming growth factor-beta (TGFβ), glioma-associated microglia produce molecules that promote glioma growth and invasion. Olfactomedin-like 3 (Olfml3), a novel, secreted glycoprotein, is known to promote several non-CNS cancers. While it is a direct TGFβ1 target gene in microglia, the role of microglia-derived OLFML3 in glioma progression is unknown. Here, we tested the hypotheses that microglial Olfml3 is integral to the pro-tumorigenic glioma-associated microglia phenotype and promotes glioma cell malignancy. Using an Olfml3 knockout microglial cell line (N9), we demonstrated that Olfml3 is a direct target gene of all TGFβ isoforms in murine microglia. Moreover, loss of Olfml3 attenuated TGFβ-induced restraint on microglial immune function and production of cytokines that are critical in promoting glioma cell malignancy. Importantly, microglia-derived OLFML3 directly contributes to glioma cell malignancy through increased migration and invasion. While exposure to conditioned medium (CM) from isogenic control microglia pre-treated with TGFβ increased mouse glioma cell (GL261) migration and invasion, this effect was abolished with exposure to CM from TGFβ-treated Olfml3-/- microglia. Taken together, our data suggest that Olfml3 may serve as a gatekeeper for TGFβ-induced microglial gene expression, thereby promoting the pro-tumorigenic microglia phenotype and glioma cell malignancy.

Granulopoiesis and Neutrophil Homeostasis: A Metabolic, Daily Balancing Act

Granulopoiesis is part of the hematopoietic hierarchic architecture, where hematopoietic stem cells give rise to highly proliferative multipotent and lineage-committed granulocytic progenitor cells that differentiate into unipotent neutrophil progenitors. Given their short lifespan, neutrophils are rapidly cleared from circulation through specialized efferocytic macrophages. Together with an intrinsic clock, these processes contribute to circadian fluctuations, preserving self-tolerance and protection against invading pathogens. However, metabolic perturbation of granulopoiesis and neutrophil homeostasis can result in low-grade chronic inflammation, as observed with aging. During acute pathogenic infections, hematopoiesis can also be switched into emergency mode, which has been recently associated with significant neutrophil functional heterogeneity. This review focuses on a new reassessment of regulatory mechanisms governing neutrophil production, life-cycle, and diversity in health and disease.

Anti-neutrophil cytoplasmic antibodies (ANCA): Antigen interactions and downstream effects

Neutrophils are the most abundant leukocytes in circulation and are key "first responders" in the immune response to infectious and non-infectious stimuli. Unlike other immune cells, neutrophils can mount a robust response (including a change in surface markers and the production of extracellular traps and reactive oxygen species) just minutes after sensing a disturbance. It has been speculated that, in some individuals, the activation of neutrophils inadvertently leads to the generation of anti-neutrophil cytoplasmic autoantibodies (ANCA) against particular neutrophil proteins (antigens) such as myeloperoxidase (MPO) and proteinase 3 (PR3). In these individuals, continuous ANCA-antigen interactions are thought to drive persistent activation of neutrophils, chronic immune activation, and disease, most notably, small vessel vasculitis. There are significant gaps however in our understanding of the underlying mechanisms and even the pathogenicity of ANCA given that vasculitis can develop in the absence of ANCA, and that ANCA have been found in circulation in other conditions with no apparent contribution to disease. These gaps are particularly evident in the context of human studies. Herein, we review knowledge on neutrophil-derived ANCA antigens PR3 and MPO, ANCA generation, and ANCA-antigen interaction(s) that may promote immune activation and disease.

Novel findings in neutrophil biology and their impact on cardiovascular disease

Neutrophils are the most abundant circulating leucocytes in healthy humans. These cells are central players during acute inflammatory responses, although a growing body of evidence supports a crucial role in chronic inflammation and chemokines and cytokines related to it as well. Thus, both humoral and cellular components are involved in the development of plaque formation and atherosclerosis. Accordingly, CANTOS trial using an interleukin-1 beta antibody confirmed that inflammatory cytokines contribute to the occurrence of myocardial infarction and cardiac death independent of changes in lipids. Recent data revealed that neutrophils are a heterogeneous population with different subsets and functional characteristics (i.e. CD177+ cells, OLFM4+ neutrophils, proangiogenic neutrophils, neutrophils undergoing reverse migration, and aged neutrophils). Importantly, neutrophils are able to synthesize de novo proteins. Neutrophil extracellular trap generation and NETosis have been considered as very important weapons in sterile inflammation. Neutrophil-derived microvesicles represent another mechanism by which neutrophils amplify inflammatory processes, being found at high levels both at the site of injury and in the bloodstream. Finally, neutrophil aging can influence their functions also in relation with host age. These recent acquisitions in the field of neutrophil biology might pave the way for new therapeutic targets to prevent or even treat patients experiencing cardiovascular (CV) diseases. Here, we discuss novel findings in neutrophil biology, their impact on CV and cerebrovascular diseases, and the potential implementation of these notions into daily clinical practice.

Determination of Subset-Restricted Anti-neutrophil Cytoplasmic Antibodies (ANCA) by Immunofluorescence Cytochemistry

Neutrophils have long been considered a homogeneous cell type where all circulating cells of a particular individual express the same proteins. Lately, however, this view is changing and distinct neutrophil subsets, defined by the presence or absence of different proteins, are being increasingly recognized. At least two separate protein markers, CD177 and Olfactomedin-4 (OLFM4) are known to be expressed by some, but not all, circulating neutrophils of a given individual. We recently described the existence of subset-restricted serum autoantibodies targeting OLFM4; these were discovered during clinical testing for anti-neutrophil cytoplasmic antibodies (ANCAs). ANCA testing is part of the clinical examinations routinely carried out to support diagnosis of suspected autoimmune conditions, especially vasculitis. Positive sera typically react with all neutrophils from a single donor, whereas subset-restricted ANCA sera (such as those containing anti-OLFM4 antibodies) only react with a fraction of neutrophils. Described in this chapter is an indirect immunofluorescence (IIF) approach to test human sera for the presence of subset-restricted ANCA as well as instructions for costaining experiments using sera and purified antibodies directed against established subset markers.

Neutrophil Extracellular Traps: The Biology of Chromatin Externalization

Neutrophils are essential to the homeostatic mission of safeguarding host tissues, responding rapidly and diversely to breaches of the host's barriers to infection, and returning tissues to a sterile state. In response to specific stimuli, neutrophils extrude modified chromatin structures decorated with specific cytoplasmic and granular proteins called neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs). Several pathways lead to this unique form of cell death (NETosis). Extracellular chromatin may have evolved to defend eukaryotic organisms against infection, and its release has at least three functions: trapping and killing of microbes, amplifying immune responses, and inducing coagulation. Here we review neutrophil development and heterogeneity with a focus on NETs, NET formation, and their relevance in host defense and disease.

Neutrophil programming dynamics and its disease relevance

Neutrophils are traditionally considered as first responders to infection and provide antimicrobial host defense. However, recent advances indicate that neutrophils are also critically involved in the modulation of host immune environments by dynamically adopting distinct functional states. Functionally diverse neutrophil subsets are increasingly recognized as critical components mediating host pathophysiology. Despite its emerging significance, molecular mechanisms as well as functional relevance of dynamically programmed neutrophils remain to be better defined. The increasing complexity of neutrophil functions may require integrative studies that address programming dynamics of neutrophils and their pathophysiological relevance. This review aims to provide an update on the emerging topics of neutrophil programming dynamics as well as their functional relevance in diseases.

Human neutrophils in the saga of cellular heterogeneity: insights and open questions

Recent findings have uncovered novel fascinating aspects of the biology of neutrophils, which ultimately attribute to these cells a broader role in inflammation and immunity. One aspect that is currently under intensive investigation is the notion of neutrophil 'heterogeneity'. Studies examining neutrophils in a variety of acute and chronic inflammatory conditions report, in fact, the recovery of CD66b(+) cells displaying neutrophil-like morphology at different degrees of maturation/activation, able to exert either immunosuppressive or proinflammatory properties. These heterogeneous populations of mature and immature neutrophils are indicated with a variety of names, including 'low density neutrophils (LDNs)', 'low density granulocytes (LDGs)', 'granulocytic-myeloid derived suppressor cells (G-MDSCs)', and immunosuppressive neutrophils. However, due to the lack of discrete markers that can unequivocally allow their specific identification and isolation, the precise phenotype and function of all these presumably novel, neutrophil-like, populations have not been correctly defined yet. Aim of this article is to summarize current knowledge on the mature and immature neutrophil populations described to date, featuring immunosuppressive or proinflammatory properties, often defined as 'subsets', as well as to critically discuss unresolved issues in the field.

Re-Examining Neutrophil Participation in GN

Significant advances in understanding the pathogenesis of GN have occurred in recent decades. Among those advances is the finding that both innate and adaptive immune cells contribute to the development of GN. Neutrophils were recognized as key contributors in early animal models of GN, at a time when the prevailing view considered neutrophils to function as nonspecific effector cells that die quickly after performing antimicrobial functions. However, advances over the past two decades have shown that neutrophil functions are more complex and sophisticated. Specifically, research has revealed that neutrophil survival is regulated by the inflammatory milieu and that neutrophils demonstrate plasticity, mediate microbial killing through previously unrecognized mechanisms, demonstrate transcriptional activity leading to the release of cytokines and chemokines, interact with and regulate cells of the innate and adaptive immune systems, and contribute to the resolution of inflammation. Therefore, neutrophil participation in glomerular diseases deserves re-evaluation. In this review, we describe advances in understanding classic neutrophil functions, review the expanded roles of neutrophils in innate and adaptive immune responses, and summarize current knowledge of neutrophil contributions to GN.

Transcriptional Categorization of the Etiology of Pneumonia Syndrome in Pediatric Patients in Malaria-Endemic Areas

Background

Pediatric acute respiratory distress in tropical settings is very common. Bacterial pneumonia is a major contributor to morbidity and mortality rates and requires adequate diagnosis for correct treatment. A rapid test that could identify bacterial (vs other) infections would have great clinical utility.

Methods and Results

We performed RNA (RNA-seq) sequencing and analyzed the transcriptomes of 68 pediatric patients with well-characterized clinical phenotype to identify transcriptional features associated with each disease class. We refined the features to predictive models (support vector machine, elastic net) and validated those models in an independent test set of 37 patients (80%-85% accuracy).

Conclusions

We have identified sets of genes that are differentially expressed in pediatric patients with pneumonia syndrome attributable to different infections and requiring different therapeutic interventions. Findings of this study demonstrate that human transcription signatures in infected patients recapitulate the underlying biology and provide models for predicting a bacterial diagnosis to inform treatment.

Olfactomedin-4 Is a Candidate Marker for a Pathogenic Neutrophil Subset in Septic Shock

OBJECTIVES

Heterogeneity in sepsis-related pathobiology presents a significant challenge. Resolving this heterogeneity presents an opportunity to understand pathobiology and improve patient care. Olfactomedin-4 is a neutrophil subset marker and may contribute to sepsis heterogeneity. Our objective was to evaluate the expression of olfactomedin-4 and characterize neutrophil heterogeneity in children with septic shock.

DESIGN

Single-center, prospective cohort, as well as secondary analysis of existing transcriptomic and proteomic databases.

SETTING

Tertiary care PICU.

PATIENTS

Patients from 5 days to 18 years old with septic shock were enrolled. Data collected included the expression of olfactomedin-4 messenger RNA, serum protein concentrations, and percentage of neutrophils that express olfactomedin-4.

INTERVENTIONS

None.

MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS

Secondary analysis of existing transcriptomic data demonstrated that olfactomedin-4 is the most highly expressed gene in nonsurvivors of pediatric septic shock, compared with survivors. Secondary analysis of an existing proteomic database corroborated these observations. In a prospectively enrolled cohort, we quantified the percentage of olfactomedin-4+ neutrophils in patients with septic shock. Patients with a complicated course, defined as greater than or equal to two organ failures at day 7 of septic shock or 28-day mortality, had a higher percentage of olfactomedin-4+ neutrophils, compared with those without a complicated course. By logistic regression, the percentage of olfactomedin-4+ neutrophils was independently associated with increased risk of a complicated course (odds ratio, 1.09; 95% CI, 1.01-1.17; p = 0.024).

CONCLUSIONS

Olfactomedin-4 identifies a subpopulation of neutrophils in patients with septic shock, and those with a high percentage of olfactomedin-4+ neutrophils are at higher risk for greater organ failure burden and death. Olfactomedin-4 might serve as a marker of a pathogenic neutrophil subset in patients with septic shock.

Olfactomedin 4 expression and functions in innate immunity, inflammation, and cancer

Olfactomedin 4 (OLFM4) is an olfactomedin domain-containing glycoprotein. Multiple signaling pathways and factors, including NF-κB, Wnt, Notch, PU.1, retinoic acids, estrogen receptor, and miR-486, regulate its expression. OLFM4 interacts with several other proteins, such as gene associated with retinoic-interferon-induced mortality 19 (GRIM-19), cadherins, lectins, nucleotide oligomerization domain-1 (NOD1) and nucleotide oligomerization domain-2 (NOD2), and cathepsins C and D, known to regulate important cellular functions. Recent investigations using Olfm4-deficient mouse models have provided important clues about its in vivo biological functions. Olfm4 inhibited Helicobacter pylori-induced NF-κB pathway activity and inflammation and facilitated H. pylori colonization in the mouse stomach. Olfm4-deficient mice exhibited enhanced immunity against Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus infection. Olfm4 deletion in a chronic granulomatous disease mouse model rescued them from S. aureus infection. Olfm4 deletion in mice treated with azoxymethane/dextran sodium sulfate led to robust intestinal inflammation and intestinal crypt hyperplasia. Olfm4 deletion in Apc (Min/+) mice promoted intestinal polyp formation as well as adenocarcinoma development in the distal colon. Further, Olfm4-deficient mice spontaneously developed prostatic epithelial lesions as they age. OLFM4 expression is correlated with cancer differentiation, stage, metastasis, and prognosis in a variety of cancers, suggesting its potential clinical value as an early-stage cancer marker or a therapeutic target. Collectively, these data suggest that OLFM4 plays important roles in innate immunity against bacterial infection, gastrointestinal inflammation, and cancer. In this review, we have summarized OLFM4's initial characterization, expression, regulation, protein interactions, and biological functions.

Recent advances in understanding neutrophils

Neutrophils have long been regarded as key effectors of the innate immune response during acute inflammation. Recent evidence has revealed a greater functional diversity for these cells than previously appreciated, expanding roles for neutrophils in adaptive immunity and chronic pathologies. In this review, we summarize some of the evolving paradigms in the neutrophil field and highlight key advances that have contributed to our understanding of neutrophil behavior and function in vivo. We examine the concept of neutrophil subsets and polarization, we discuss novel immunomodulatory roles for neutrophils in shaping the immune response, and, finally, we identify technical advances that will further enhance our ability to track the function and fate of neutrophils.

Neutrophil heterogeneity: implications for homeostasis and pathogenesis

Neutrophils are polymorphonuclear leukocytes of the phagocytic system that act as first line of host defense against invading pathogens but are also important mediators of inflammation-induced injury. In contrast to other members of the innate immune system, neutrophils are classically considered a homogenous population of terminally differentiated cells with a well-defined and highly conserved function. Indeed, their short lifespan, the absent proliferative capacity, their limited ability to produce large amounts of cytokines, and the failure to recirculate from the tissue to the bloodstream have sustained this idea. However, increasing evidence over the last decade has demonstrated an unexpected phenotypic heterogeneity and functional versatility of the neutrophil population. Far beyond their antimicrobial functions, neutrophils are emerging as decision-shapers during innate and adaptive immune responses. These emerging discoveries open a new door to understand the role of neutrophils during homeostatic but also pathogenic immune processes. Thus, this review details novel insights of neutrophil phenotypic and functional heterogeneity during homeostasis and disease.