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Ahmed S, Alam W, Alsharif KF, Aschner M, Alzahrani FM, Saso L, Khan H. Therapeutic potential of marine peptides in malignant melanoma. Environ Res 2023; 227:115771. [PMID: 36967001 DOI: 10.1016/j.envres.2023.115771] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/23/2023] [Revised: 03/18/2023] [Accepted: 03/23/2023] [Indexed: 05/08/2023]
Abstract
Malignant melanoma is the most dangerous type of skin cancer. It is becoming more common globally and is increasingly resistant to treatment options. Despite extensive research into its pathophysiology, there are still no proven cures for metastatic melanoma. Unfortunately, current treatments are frequently ineffective and costly, and have several adverse effects. Natural substances have been extensively researched for their anti-MM capabilities. Chemoprevention and adjuvant therapy with natural products is an emerging strategy to prevent, cure or treat melanoma. Numerous prospective drugs are found in aquatic species, providing a plentiful supply of lead cytotoxic chemicals for cancer treatment. Anticancer peptides are less harmful to healthy cells and cure cancer through several different methods, such as altered cell viability, apoptosis, angiogenesis/metastasis suppression, microtubule balance disturbances and targeting lipid composition of the cancer cell membrane. This review addresses marine peptides as effective and safe treatments for MM and details their molecular mechanisms of action.
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Affiliation(s)
- Salman Ahmed
- Department of Pharmacognosy, Faculty of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Karachi, Karachi, 75270, Pakistan.
| | - Waqas Alam
- Department of Pharmacy, Abdul Wali Khan University Mardan, Mardan, 23200, Pakistan.
| | - Khalaf F Alsharif
- Department of Clinical Laboratory Sciences, College of Applied Medical Science, Taif University, P.O. Box 11099, Taif, 21944, Saudi Arabia.
| | - Michael Aschner
- Department of Molecular Pharmacology, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY, 10461, USA.
| | - Fuad M Alzahrani
- Department of Clinical Laboratory Sciences, College of Applied Medical Science, Taif University, P.O. Box 11099, Taif, 21944, Saudi Arabia.
| | - Luciano Saso
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology "Vittorio Erspamer"Sapienza University, 00185, Rome, Italy.
| | - Haroon Khan
- Department of Pharmacy, Abdul Wali Khan University Mardan, Mardan, 23200, Pakistan.
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Ahmed S, Alam W, Aschner M, Filosa R, Cheang WS, Jeandet P, Saso L, Khan H. Marine Cyanobacterial Peptides in Neuroblastoma: Search for Better Therapeutic Options. Cancers (Basel) 2023; 15:cancers15092515. [PMID: 37173981 PMCID: PMC10177606 DOI: 10.3390/cancers15092515] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2022] [Revised: 03/03/2023] [Accepted: 03/12/2023] [Indexed: 05/15/2023] Open
Abstract
Neuroblastoma is the most prevalent extracranial solid tumor in pediatric patients, originating from sympathetic nervous system cells. Metastasis can be observed in approximately 70% of individuals after diagnosis, and the prognosis is poor. The current care methods used, which include surgical removal as well as radio and chemotherapy, are largely unsuccessful, with high mortality and relapse rates. Therefore, attempts have been made to incorporate natural compounds as new alternative treatments. Marine cyanobacteria are a key source of physiologically active metabolites, which have recently received attention owing to their anticancer potential. This review addresses cyanobacterial peptides' anticancer efficacy against neuroblastoma. Numerous prospective studies have been carried out with marine peptides for pharmaceutical development including in research for anticancer potential. Marine peptides possess several advantages over proteins or antibodies, including small size, simple manufacturing, cell membrane crossing capabilities, minimal drug-drug interactions, minimal changes in blood-brain barrier (BBB) integrity, selective targeting, chemical and biological diversities, and effects on liver and kidney functions. We discussed the significance of cyanobacterial peptides in generating cytotoxic effects and their potential to prevent cancer cell proliferation via apoptosis, the activation of caspases, cell cycle arrest, sodium channel blocking, autophagy, and anti-metastasis behavior.
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Affiliation(s)
- Salman Ahmed
- Department of Pharmacognosy, Faculty of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Karachi, Karachi 75270, Pakistan
| | - Waqas Alam
- Department of Pharmacy, Abdul Wali Khan University Mardan, Mardan 23200, Pakistan
| | - Michael Aschner
- Department of Molecular Pharmacology, Albert Einstein College of Medicine Forchheimer, 209 1300 Morris Park Avenue, Bronx, NY 10461, USA
| | - Rosanna Filosa
- Department of Science and Technology, University of Sannio, 82100 Benevento, Italy
| | - Wai San Cheang
- State Key Laboratory of Quality Research in Chinese Medicine, Institute of Chinese Medical Sciences, University of Macau, Macao SAR 999078, China
| | - Philippe Jeandet
- Faculty of Sciences, RIBP-USC INRAe 1488, University of Reims, 51100 Reims, France
| | - Luciano Saso
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology "Vittorio Erspamer", Sapienza University, 00185 Rome, Italy
| | - Haroon Khan
- Department of Pharmacy, Abdul Wali Khan University Mardan, Mardan 23200, Pakistan
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Robles-bañuelos B, Durán-riveroll LM, Rangel-lópez E, Pérez-lópez HI, González-maya L. Marine Cyanobacteria as Sources of Lead Anticancer Compounds: A Review of Families of Metabolites with Cytotoxic, Antiproliferative, and Antineoplastic Effects. Molecules 2022; 27:4814. [PMID: 35956762 PMCID: PMC9369884 DOI: 10.3390/molecules27154814] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/24/2022] [Revised: 07/22/2022] [Accepted: 07/24/2022] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
The marine environment is highly diverse, each living creature fighting to establish and proliferate. Among marine organisms, cyanobacteria are astounding secondary metabolite producers representing a wonderful source of biologically active molecules aimed to communicate, defend from predators, or compete. Studies on these molecules’ origins and activities have been systematic, although much is still to be discovered. Their broad chemical diversity results from integrating peptide and polyketide synthetases and synthases, along with cascades of biosynthetic transformations resulting in new chemical structures. Cyanobacteria are glycolipid, macrolide, peptide, and polyketide producers, and to date, hundreds of these molecules have been isolated and tested. Many of these compounds have demonstrated important bioactivities such as cytotoxicity, antineoplastic, and antiproliferative activity with potential pharmacological uses. Some are currently under clinical investigation. Additionally, conventional chemotherapeutic treatments include drugs with a well-known range of side effects, making anticancer drug research from new sources, such as marine cyanobacteria, necessary. This review is focused on the anticancer bioactivities of metabolites produced by marine cyanobacteria, emphasizing the identification of each variant of the metabolite family, their chemical structures, and the mechanisms of action underlying their biological and pharmacological activities.
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Zhang QT, Liu ZD, Wang Z, Wang T, Wang N, Wang N, Zhang B, Zhao YF. Recent Advances in Small Peptides of Marine Origin in Cancer Therapy. Mar Drugs 2021; 19:md19020115. [PMID: 33669851 PMCID: PMC7923226 DOI: 10.3390/md19020115] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/31/2020] [Revised: 02/13/2021] [Accepted: 02/18/2021] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Cancer is one of the leading causes of death in the world, and antineoplastic drug research continues to be a major field in medicine development. The marine milieu has thousands of biological species that are a valuable source of novel functional proteins and peptides, which have been used in the treatment of many diseases, including cancer. In contrast with proteins and polypeptides, small peptides (with a molecular weight of less than 1000 Da) have overwhelming advantages, such as preferential and fast absorption, which can decrease the burden on human gastrointestinal function. Besides, these peptides are only connected by a few peptide bonds, and their small molecular weight makes it easy to modify and synthesize them. Specifically, small peptides can deliver nutrients and drugs to cells and tissues in the body. These characteristics make them stand out in relation to targeted drug therapy. Nowadays, the anticancer mechanisms of the small marine peptides are still largely not well understood; however, several marine peptides have been applied in preclinical treatment. This paper highlights the anticancer linear and cyclic small peptides in marine resources and presents a review of peptides and the derivatives and their mechanisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qi-Ting Zhang
- Institute of Drug Discovery Technology, Ningbo University, Ningbo 315211, China; (Q.-T.Z.); (T.W.); (Y.-F.Z.)
| | - Ze-Dong Liu
- Li Dak Sum Yip Yio Chin Kenneth Li Marine Biopharmaceutical Research Center, Department of Marine Pharmacy, College of Food and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Ningbo University, Ningbo 315800, China; (Z.-D.L.); (Z.W.)
| | - Ze Wang
- Li Dak Sum Yip Yio Chin Kenneth Li Marine Biopharmaceutical Research Center, Department of Marine Pharmacy, College of Food and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Ningbo University, Ningbo 315800, China; (Z.-D.L.); (Z.W.)
| | - Tao Wang
- Institute of Drug Discovery Technology, Ningbo University, Ningbo 315211, China; (Q.-T.Z.); (T.W.); (Y.-F.Z.)
| | - Nan Wang
- Quality Assurance Department, Shenzhen Kivita Innovative Drug Discovery Institute, Shenzhen 518057, China;
| | - Ning Wang
- Institute of Drug Discovery Technology, Ningbo University, Ningbo 315211, China; (Q.-T.Z.); (T.W.); (Y.-F.Z.)
- Correspondence: (N.W.); (B.Z.)
| | - Bin Zhang
- Li Dak Sum Yip Yio Chin Kenneth Li Marine Biopharmaceutical Research Center, Department of Marine Pharmacy, College of Food and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Ningbo University, Ningbo 315800, China; (Z.-D.L.); (Z.W.)
- Correspondence: (N.W.); (B.Z.)
| | - Yu-Fen Zhao
- Institute of Drug Discovery Technology, Ningbo University, Ningbo 315211, China; (Q.-T.Z.); (T.W.); (Y.-F.Z.)
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Mondal A, Bose S, Banerjee S, Patra JK, Malik J, Mandal SK, Kilpatrick KL, Das G, Kerry RG, Fimognari C, Bishayee A. Marine Cyanobacteria and Microalgae Metabolites-A Rich Source of Potential Anticancer Drugs. Mar Drugs 2020; 18:E476. [PMID: 32961827 PMCID: PMC7551136 DOI: 10.3390/md18090476] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/25/2020] [Revised: 09/09/2020] [Accepted: 09/16/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Cancer is at present one of the utmost deadly diseases worldwide. Past efforts in cancer research have focused on natural medicinal products. Over the past decades, a great deal of initiatives was invested towards isolating and identifying new marine metabolites via pharmaceutical companies, and research institutions in general. Secondary marine metabolites are looked at as a favorable source of potentially new pharmaceutically active compounds, having a vast structural diversity and diverse biological activities; therefore, this is an astonishing source of potentially new anticancer therapy. This review contains an extensive critical discussion on the potential of marine microbial compounds and marine microalgae metabolites as anticancer drugs, highlighting their chemical structure and exploring the underlying mechanisms of action. Current limitation, challenges, and future research pathways were also presented.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arijit Mondal
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Bengal College of Pharmaceutical Technology, Dubrajpur 731 123, West Bengal, India
| | - Sankhadip Bose
- Department of Pharmacognosy, Bengal School of Technology, Chuchura 712 102, West Bengal, India;
| | - Sabyasachi Banerjee
- Department of Phytochemistry, Gupta College of Technological Sciences, Asansol 713 301, West Bengal, India;
| | - Jayanta Kumar Patra
- Research Institute of Biotechnology and Medical Converged Science, Dongguk University-Seoul, Goyang-si 10326, Korea; (J.K.P.); (G.D.)
| | - Jai Malik
- Centre of Advanced Study, University Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Punjab University, Chandigarh 160 014, Punjab, India;
| | - Sudip Kumar Mandal
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Dr. B.C. Roy College of Pharmacy and Allied Health Sciences, Durgapur 713 206, West Bengal, India;
| | | | - Gitishree Das
- Research Institute of Biotechnology and Medical Converged Science, Dongguk University-Seoul, Goyang-si 10326, Korea; (J.K.P.); (G.D.)
| | - Rout George Kerry
- Post Graduate Department of Biotechnology, Utkal University, Bhubaneswar 751 004, Odisha, India;
| | - Carmela Fimognari
- Department for Life Quality Studies, Alma Mater Studiorum-Università di Bologna, 47921 Rimini, Italy
| | - Anupam Bishayee
- Lake Erie College of Osteopathic Medicine, Bradenton, FL 34211, USA;
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Dahiya R, Dahiya S, Fuloria NK, Kumar S, Mourya R, Chennupati SV, Jankie S, Gautam H, Singh S, Karan SK, Maharaj S, Fuloria S, Shrivastava J, Agarwal A, Singh S, Kishor A, Jadon G, Sharma A. Natural Bioactive Thiazole-Based Peptides from Marine Resources: Structural and Pharmacological Aspects. Mar Drugs 2020; 18:md18060329. [PMID: 32599909 PMCID: PMC7345825 DOI: 10.3390/md18060329] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/25/2020] [Revised: 06/18/2020] [Accepted: 06/19/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Peptides are distinctive biomacromolecules that demonstrate potential cytotoxicity and diversified bioactivities against a variety of microorganisms including bacteria, mycobacteria, and fungi via their unique mechanisms of action. Among broad-ranging pharmacologically active peptides, natural marine-originated thiazole-based oligopeptides possess peculiar structural features along with a wide spectrum of exceptional and potent bioproperties. Because of their complex nature and size divergence, thiazole-based peptides (TBPs) bestow a pivotal chemical platform in drug discovery processes to generate competent scaffolds for regulating allosteric binding sites and peptide–peptide interactions. The present study dissertates on the natural reservoirs and exclusive structural components of marine-originated TBPs, with a special focus on their most pertinent pharmacological profiles, which may impart vital resources for the development of novel peptide-based therapeutic agents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rajiv Dahiya
- School of Pharmacy, Faculty of Medical Sciences, The University of the West Indies, St. Augustine, Trinidad & Tobago; (S.J.); (S.M.); (S.S.)
- Correspondence: (R.D.); (S.D.); Tel.: +1-868-493-5655 (R.D.); +1-787-758-2525 (ext. 5413) (S.D.)
| | - Sunita Dahiya
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Pharmacy, University of Puerto Rico, Medical Sciences Campus, San Juan, PR 00936, USA
- Correspondence: (R.D.); (S.D.); Tel.: +1-868-493-5655 (R.D.); +1-787-758-2525 (ext. 5413) (S.D.)
| | - Neeraj Kumar Fuloria
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, AIMST University, Semeling, Bedong 08100, Kedah, Malaysia; (N.K.F.); (S.F.)
| | - Suresh Kumar
- Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Kurukshetra University, Kurukshetra 136119, Haryana, India;
| | - Rita Mourya
- School of Pharmacy, College of Medicine and Health Sciences, University of Gondar, P.O. Box 196, Gondar 6200, Ethiopia;
| | - Suresh V. Chennupati
- Department of Pharmacy, College of Medical and Health Sciences, Wollega University, P.O. Box 395, Nekemte, Ethiopia;
| | - Satish Jankie
- School of Pharmacy, Faculty of Medical Sciences, The University of the West Indies, St. Augustine, Trinidad & Tobago; (S.J.); (S.M.); (S.S.)
| | - Hemendra Gautam
- Arya College of Pharmacy, Dr. A.P.J. Abdul Kalam Technical University, Nawabganj, Bareilly 243407, Uttar Pardesh, India;
| | - Sunil Singh
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Ideal Institute of Pharmacy, Wada, Palghar 421303, Maharashtra, India;
| | - Sanjay Kumar Karan
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Seemanta Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Jharpokharia, Mayurbhanj 757086, Orissa, India;
| | - Sandeep Maharaj
- School of Pharmacy, Faculty of Medical Sciences, The University of the West Indies, St. Augustine, Trinidad & Tobago; (S.J.); (S.M.); (S.S.)
| | - Shivkanya Fuloria
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, AIMST University, Semeling, Bedong 08100, Kedah, Malaysia; (N.K.F.); (S.F.)
| | - Jyoti Shrivastava
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, The Oxford College of Pharmacy, Hongasandra, Bangalore 560068, Karnataka, India;
| | - Alka Agarwal
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, U.S. Ostwal Institute of Pharmacy, Mangalwad, Chittorgarh 313603, Rajasthan, India;
| | - Shamjeet Singh
- School of Pharmacy, Faculty of Medical Sciences, The University of the West Indies, St. Augustine, Trinidad & Tobago; (S.J.); (S.M.); (S.S.)
| | - Awadh Kishor
- Department of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, Shrinathji Institute of Pharmacy, Nathdwara 313301, Rajsamand, Rajasthan, India;
| | - Gunjan Jadon
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Shrinathji Institute of Pharmacy, Nathdwara 313301, Rajsamand, Rajasthan, India;
| | - Ajay Sharma
- Department of Pharmacognosy and Phytochemistry, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Delhi Pharmaceutical Sciences and Research University, New Delhi 110017, India;
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Lichota A, Gwozdzinski K. Anticancer Activity of Natural Compounds from Plant and Marine Environment. Int J Mol Sci 2018; 19:E3533. [PMID: 30423952 PMCID: PMC6275022 DOI: 10.3390/ijms19113533] [Citation(s) in RCA: 221] [Impact Index Per Article: 36.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/10/2018] [Revised: 11/05/2018] [Accepted: 11/06/2018] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
This paper describes the substances of plant and marine origin that have anticancer properties. The chemical structure of the molecules of these substances, their properties, mechanisms of action, their structure⁻activity relationships, along with their anticancer properties and their potential as chemotherapeutic drugs are discussed in this paper. This paper presents natural substances from plants, animals, and their aquatic environments. These substances include the vinca alkaloids, mistletoe plant extracts, podophyllotoxin derivatives, taxanes, camptothecin, combretastatin, and others including geniposide, colchicine, artesunate, homoharringtonine, salvicine, ellipticine, roscovitine, maytanasin, tapsigargin, and bruceantin. Compounds (psammaplin, didemnin, dolastin, ecteinascidin, and halichondrin) isolated from the marine plants and animals such as microalgae, cyanobacteria, heterotrophic bacteria, invertebrates (e.g., sponges, tunicates, and soft corals) as well as certain other substances that have been tested on cells and experimental animals and used in human chemotherapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna Lichota
- Department of Molecular Biophysics, Faculty of Biology and Environmental Protection, University of Lodz, 90-136 Lodz, Poland.
| | - Krzysztof Gwozdzinski
- Department of Molecular Biophysics, Faculty of Biology and Environmental Protection, University of Lodz, 90-136 Lodz, Poland.
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Riedl S, Zweytick D, Lohner K. Membrane-active host defense peptides--challenges and perspectives for the development of novel anticancer drugs. Chem Phys Lipids 2011; 164:766-81. [PMID: 21945565 PMCID: PMC3220766 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemphyslip.2011.09.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 294] [Impact Index Per Article: 22.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/20/2011] [Revised: 09/07/2011] [Accepted: 09/08/2011] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Although much progress has been achieved in the development of cancer therapies in recent decades, problems continue to arise particularly with respect to chemotherapy due to resistance to and low specificity of currently available drugs. Host defense peptides as effector molecules of innate immunity represent a novel strategy for the development of alternative anticancer drug molecules. These cationic amphipathic peptides are able to discriminate between neoplastic and non-neoplastic cells interacting specifically with negatively charged membrane components such as phosphatidylserine (PS), sialic acid or heparan sulfate, which differ between cancer and non-cancer cells. Furthermore, an increased number of microvilli has been found on cancer cells leading to an increase in cell surface area, which may in turn enhance their susceptibility to anticancer peptides. Thus, part of this review will be devoted to the differences in membrane composition of non-cancer and cancer cells with a focus on the exposure of PS on the outer membrane. Normally, surface exposed PS triggers apoptosis, which can however be circumvented by cancer cells by various means. Host defense peptides, which selectively target differences between cancer and non-cancer cell membranes, have excellent tumor tissue penetration and can thus reach the site of both primary tumor and distant metastasis. Since these molecules kill their target cells rapidly and mainly by perturbing the integrity of the plasma membrane, resistance is less likely to occur. Hence, a chapter will also describe studies related to the molecular mechanisms of membrane damage as well as alternative non-membrane related mechanisms. In vivo studies have demonstrated that host defense peptides display anticancer activity against a number of cancers such as e.g. leukemia, prostate, ascite and ovarian tumors, yet so far none of these peptides has made it on the market. Nevertheless, optimization of host defense peptides using various strategies to enhance further selectivity and serum stability is expected to yield novel anticancer drugs with improved properties in respect of cancer cell toxicity as well as reduced development of drug resistance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sabrina Riedl
- Institute of Biophysics and Nanosystems Research, Austrian Academy of Sciences, Schmiedlstrasse 6, Graz, Austria
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Abstract
Abstract
The chemical and biological diversity of the marine environment is immeasurable and therefore is an extraordinary resource for the discovery of new anticancer drugs. Recent technological and methodologic advances in structure elucidation, organic synthesis, and biological assay have resulted in the isolation and clinical evaluation of various novel anticancer agents. These compounds range in structural class from simple linear peptides, such as dolastatin 10, to complex macrocyclic polyethers, such as halichondrin B; equally as diverse are the molecular modes of action by which these molecules impart their biological activity. This review highlights several marine natural products and their synthetic derivatives that are currently undergoing clinical evaluation as anticancer drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- T. Luke Simmons
- College of Pharmacy, Oregon State University, Corvallis, Oregon
| | | | - Kerry McPhail
- College of Pharmacy, Oregon State University, Corvallis, Oregon
| | - Patricia Flatt
- College of Pharmacy, Oregon State University, Corvallis, Oregon
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