Cortactin depletion results in short tubulobulbar complexes and spermiation failure in rat testes

Bisphenols as promoters of the dysregulation of cellular junction proteins of the blood-testis barrier in experimental animals: A systematic review of the literature

Daily, people are exposed to chemicals and environmental compounds such as bisphenols (BPs). These substances are present in more than 80% of human fluids. Human exposure to BPs is associated with male reproductive health disorders. Some of the main targets of BPs are intercellular junction proteins of the blood-testis barrier (BTB) in Sertoli cells because BPs alter the expression or induce aberrant localization of these proteins. In this systematic review, we explore the effects of BP exposure on the expression of BTB junction proteins and the characteristics of in vivo studies to identify potential gaps and priorities for future research. To this end, we conducted a systematic review of articles. Thirteen studies met our inclusion criteria. In most studies, animals treated with bisphenol-A (BPA) showed decreased occludin expression at all tested doses. However, bisphenol-AF treatment did not alter occludin expression. Cx43, ZO-1, β-catenin, nectin-3, cortactin, paladin, and claudin-11 expression also decreased in some tested doses of BP, while N-cadherin and FAK expression increased. BP treatment did not alter the expression of α and γ catenin, E-cadherin, JAM-A, and Arp 3. However, the expression of all these proteins was altered when BPA was administered to neonatal rodents in microgram doses. The results show significant heterogeneity between studies. Thus, it is necessary to perform more research to characterize the changes in BTB protein expression induced by BPs in animals to highlight future research directions that can inform the evaluation of risk of toxicity in humans.

Focal Adhesion Protein Vinculin Is Required for Proper Meiotic Progression during Mouse Spermatogenesis

The focal adhesion protein Vinculin (VCL) is ascribed to various cytoplasmic functions; however, its nuclear role has so far been ambiguous. We observed that VCL localizes to the nuclei of mouse primary spermatocytes undergoing first meiotic division. Specifically, VCL localizes along the meiosis-specific structure synaptonemal complex (SC) during prophase I and the centromeric regions, where it remains until metaphase I. To study the role of VCL in meiotic division, we prepared a conditional knock-out mouse (VCL^cKO). We found that the VCL^cKO male mice were semi-fertile, with a decreased number of offspring compared to wild-type animals. This study of events in late prophase I indicated premature splitting of homologous chromosomes, accompanied by an untimely loss of SCP1. This caused erroneous kinetochore formation, followed by failure of the meiotic spindle assembly and metaphase I arrest. To assess the mechanism of VCL involvement in meiosis, we searched for its possible interacting partners. A mass spectrometry approach identified several putative interactors which belong to the ubiquitin–proteasome pathway (UPS). The depletion of VLC leads to the dysregulation of a key subunit of the proteasome complex in the meiotic nuclei and an altered nuclear SUMOylation level. Taken together, we show for the first time the presence of VCL in the nucleus of spermatocytes and its involvement in proper meiotic progress. It also suggests the direction for future studies regarding the role of VCL in spermatogenesis through regulation of UPS.

Cortactin knockdown results in disruption of basal TBCs and alters turnover of Sertoli cell ESs in Rattus norvegicus†

Here we explore the prediction that long-term knockdown of cortactin (CTTN), a component of tubulobulbar complexes (TBCs), disrupts TBCs in Sertoli cells and alters the turnover of basal ectoplasmic specializations (ESs). In rats, intratesticular injections of siRNA targeting CTTN (siCTTN) in one testis and nontargeting siRNA (siControl) in the contralateral testis were done on days 0, 2, 4, 6, and 8. The experiment was terminated on day 9 and testes were analyzed by either western blotting, or by stimulated emission depletion (STED), electron and/or conventional fluorescence microscopy. Levels of CTTN were successfully knocked down in experimental testes compared to controls. When cryo-sections were labeled for actin filaments, or CTTN, and oxysterol binding protein-related protein 9 (ORP9) and analyzed by STED microscopy, TBCs were "less distinct" than in tubules of the same stages from control testes. When analyzed by electron microscopy, redundant clumps of basal actin filament containing ESs were observed in experimental sections. Using labeling of actin filaments in ESs, thresholding techniques were used to calculate the number of pixels above threshold per unit length of tubule wall in seminiferous tubules at Stage VII. Median values were higher in experimental testes relative to controls in the four animals analyzed. Although we detected subtle differences in ES turnover, we were unable to demonstrate changes in spermatocyte translocation or in the levels of junction proteins at the sites. Our results are the first to demonstrate that perturbation of basal TBCs alters the turnover of actin-related junctions (ESs).

Myosin VI maintains the actin-dependent organization of the tubulobulbar complexes required for endocytosis during mouse spermiogenesis†‡

Myosin VI (MYO6) is an actin-based motor that has been implicated in a wide range of cellular processes, including endocytosis and the regulation of actin dynamics. MYO6 is crucial for actin/membrane remodeling during the final step of Drosophila spermatogenesis, and MYO6-deficient males are sterile. This protein also localizes to actin-rich structures involved in mouse spermiogenesis. Although loss of MYO6 in Snell's waltzer knock-out (KO) mice causes several defects and shows reduced male fertility, no studies have been published to address the role of MYO6 in sperm development in mouse. Here we demonstrate that MYO6 and some of its binding partners are present at highly specialized actin-based structures, the apical tubulobulbar complexes (TBCs), which mediate endocytosis of the intercellular junctions at the Sertoli cell-spermatid interface, an essential process for sperm release. Using electron and light microscopy and biochemical approaches, we show that MYO6, GIPC1 and TOM1/L2 form a complex in testis and localize predominantly to an early endocytic APPL1-positive compartment of the TBCs that is distinct from EEA1-positive early endosomes. These proteins also associate with the TBC actin-free bulbular region. Finally, our studies using testis from Snell's waltzer males show that loss of MYO6 causes disruption of the actin cytoskeleton and disorganization of the TBCs and leads to defects in the distribution of the MYO6-positive early APPL1-endosomes. Taken together, we report here for the first time that lack of MYO6 in mouse testis reduces male fertility and disrupts spatial organization of the TBC-related endocytic compartment during the late phase of spermiogenesis.

Diverse functions of myosin VI in spermiogenesis

Spermiogenesis is the final stage of spermatogenesis, a differentiation process during which unpolarized spermatids undergo excessive remodeling that results in the formation of sperm. The actin cytoskeleton and associated actin-binding proteins play crucial roles during this process regulating organelle or vesicle delivery/segregation and forming unique testicular structures involved in spermatid remodeling. In addition, several myosin motor proteins including MYO6 generate force and movement during sperm differentiation. MYO6 is highly unusual as it moves towards the minus end of actin filaments in the opposite direction to other myosin motors. This specialized feature of MYO6 may explain the many proposed functions of this myosin in a wide array of cellular processes in animal cells, including endocytosis, secretion, stabilization of the Golgi complex, and regulation of actin dynamics. These diverse roles of MYO6 are mediated by a range of specialized cargo-adaptor proteins that link this myosin to distinct cellular compartments and processes. During sperm development in a number of different organisms, MYO6 carries out pivotal functions. In Drosophila, the MYO6 ortholog regulates actin reorganization during spermatid individualization and male KO flies are sterile. In C. elegans, the MYO6 ortholog mediates asymmetric segregation of cytosolic material and spermatid budding through cytokinesis, whereas in mice, this myosin regulates assembly of highly specialized actin-rich structures and formation of membrane compartments to allow the formation of fully differentiated sperm. In this review, we will present an overview and compare the diverse function of MYO6 in the specialized adaptations of spermiogenesis in flies, worms, and mammals.

ORP9 knockdown delays the maturation of junction-related endocytic structures in the testis and leads to impaired sperm release†

The release of late spermatids from the seminiferous epithelium requires the internalization of intercellular junctions by Sertoli cell specific structures called "tubulobulbar complexes" (TBCs). These large, endocytic devices likely evolved from classic clathrin-mediated-endocytosis (CME) machinery, but have several important morphological differences to CME vesicles. Most notable among these differences is that extensive endoplasmic reticulum (ER) membrane contact sites (MCSs) occur with TBCs and not with clathrin-coated pits. One of the well-established functions of ER MCSs is lipid exchange. Previously, we have established that the ORP9 lipid exchange protein is localized to the TBC-ER MCS; however, the function of ORP9 and lipid exchange at the sites is not known. Here we use an in vivo knockdown approach to probe function. The testes of Sprague-Dawley rats were injected with ORP9 targeted siRNA or non-targeted reagents, and the tissues examined by bright field, super-resolution stimulated emission depletion, and electron microscopy. The knockdown of ORP9 was achieved and maintained with daily injections of siRNA for 2-3 day intervals. Compared to controls, sections from ORP9 siRNA-injected testes had longer TBC tubes and fewer fused TBC bulbs. Late spermatids were also abnormally retained in the epithelium of knockdown tissue. These results suggest that ORP9 is necessary for normal TBC bulb vesiculation and fusion, most likely by changing the plasma membrane lipid profile of the TBC. These data also further support the conclusion that TBCs are part of the normal mechanism of sperm release.

Autophagy core protein ATG5 is required for elongating spermatid development, sperm individualization and normal fertility in male mice

Spermiogenesis is the longest phase of spermatogenesis, with dramatic morphological changes and a final step of spermiation, which involves protein degradation and the removal of excess cytoplasm; therefore, we hypothesized that macroautophagy/autophagy might be involved in the process. To test this hypothesis, we examined the function of ATG5, a core autophagy protein in male germ cell development. Floxed Atg5 and Stra8- iCre mice were crossed to conditionally inactivate Atg5 in male germ cells. In Atg5^flox/flox; Stra8- iCre mutant mice, testicular expression of the autophagosome marker LC3A/B-II was significantly reduced, and expression of autophagy receptor SQSTM1/p62 was significantly increased, indicating a decrease in testicular autophagy activity. The fertility of mutant mice was dramatically reduced with about 70% being infertile. Sperm counts and motility were also significantly reduced compared to controls. Histological examination of the mutant testes revealed numerous, large residual bodies in the lumen of stages after their normal resorption within the seminiferous epithelium. The cauda epididymal lumen was filled with sloughed germ cells, large cytoplasmic bodies, and spermatozoa with disorganized heads and tails. Examination of cauda epididymal sperm by electron microscopy revealed misshapen sperm heads, a discontinuous accessory structure in the mid-piece and abnormal acrosome formation and loss of sperm individualization. Immunofluorescence staining of epididymal sperm showed abnormal mitochondria and acrosome distribution in the mutant mice. ATG5 was shown to induce autophagy by mediating multiple signals to maintain normal developmental processes. Our study demonstrated ATG5 is essential for male fertility and is involved in various aspects of spermiogenesis.Abbreviations: AKAP4: a-kinase anchoring protein 4; ATG5: autophagy-related 5; ATG7: autophagy-related 7; ATG10: autophagy-related 10; ATG12: autophagy-related 12; cKO: conditional knockout; DDX4: DEAD-box helicase 4; MAP1LC3/LC3/tg8: microtubule-associated protein 1 light chain 3; PBS: phosphate-buffered saline; PIWIL2/MILI: piwi like RNA-mediated gene silencing 2; RT-PCR: reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction; SQSTM1/p62: sequestosome 1; TBC: tubulobulbar complexes; WT: wild type.

The dynamics and regulation of microfilament during spermatogenesis

Spermatogenesis is a highly complex physiological process which contains spermatogonia proliferation, spermatocyte meiosis and spermatid morphogenesis. In the past decade, actin binding proteins and signaling pathways which are critical for regulating the actin cytoskeleton in testis had been found. In this review, we summarized 5 actin-binding proteins that have been proven to play important roles in the seminiferous epithelium. Lack of them perturbs spermatids polarity and the transport of spermatids. The loss of Arp2/3 complex, Formin1, Eps8, Palladin and Plastin3 cause sperm release failure suggesting their irreplaceable role in spermatogenesis. Actin regulation relies on multiple signal pathways. The PI3K/Akt signaling pathway positively regulate the mTOR pathway to promote actin reorganization in seminiferous epithelium. Conversely, TSC1/TSC2 complex, the upstream of mTOR, is activated by the LKB1/AMPK pathway to inhibit cell proliferation, differentiation and migration. The increasing researches focus on the function of actin binding proteins (ABPs), however, their collaborative regulation of actin patterns and potential regulatory signaling networks remains unclear. We reviewed ABPs that play important roles in mammalian spermatogenesis and signal pathways involved in the regulation of microfilaments. We suggest that more relevant studies should be performed in the future.

Emerging role for SRC family kinases in junction dynamics during spermatogenesis

SRC family kinases (SFKs) are known regulators of multiple cellular events, including cell movement, differentiation, proliferation, survival and apoptosis. SFKs are expressed virtually by all mammalian cells. They are non-receptor protein kinases that phosphorylate a variety of cellular proteins on tyrosine, leading to the activation of protein targets in response to environmental stimuli. Among SFKs, SRC, YES and FYN are the ubiquitously expressed and best studied members. In fact, SRC, the prototypical SFK, was the first tyrosine kinase identified in mammalian cells. Studies have shown that SFKs are regulators of cell junctions, and function in endocytosis and membrane trafficking to regulate junction restructuring events. Herein, we briefly summarize the recent findings in the field regarding the role of SFKs in the testis in regulating spermatogenesis, particularly in Sertoli-Sertoli and Sertoli-germ cell adhesion. While it is almost 50 years since the identification of the oncogene v-Src encoded by Rous sarcoma transforming virus, the understanding of SFK involvement during spermatogenesis in the testis remains far behind that in other epithelia and tissues. The goal of this review is to bridge this gap.

Internalization of Intact Intercellular Junctions in the Testis by Clathrin/Actin-Mediated Endocytic Structures: Tubulobulbar Complexes

Sertoli cells of the mammalian seminiferous epithelium form unique subcellular actin-related structures at intercellular junctions. The appearance of these so called "tubulobulbar complexes" (TBCs) precedes both sperm release at the apex of the epithelium and the movement of early spermatogenic cells out of the spermatogonial stem cell niche at the base of the epithelium. TBCs are considered to be part of the mechanism of junction endocytosis by Sertoli cells. The structures contain junction proteins and morphologically identifiable junctions, and are associated with markers of endocytosis. Here we review the current state of knowledge about the structure and function of TBCs. As the complexes form, they morphologically resemble and have the molecular signature of clathrin-coated pits with extremely long necks. As they mature, the actin filament networks around the "necks" of the structures progressively disassemble and the membrane cores expand or swell into distinct "bulbs". These bulbs acquire extensive membrane contact sites with associated cisternae of endoplasmic reticulum. Eventually the bulbs undergo scission and continue through endosomal compartments of the Sertoli cells. The morphology and composition of TBC indicates to us that the structures likely evolved from the basic clathrin-mediated endocytosis mechanism common to cells generally, and along the way they incorporated unique features to accommodate the cyclic turnover of massive and "intact" intercellular junctions that occurs during spermatogenesis. Anat Rec, 301:2080-2085, 2018. © 2018 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Multiple aspects of male germ cell development and interactions with Sertoli cells require inositol hexakisphosphate kinase-1

Inositol hexakisphosphate kinase-1 (IP6K1) is required for male fertility, but the underlying mechanisms have been elusive. Here, we report that IP6K1 is required for multiple aspects of male germ cell development. This development requires selective interactions between germ cells and Sertoli cells, namely apical ectoplasmic specialization. Spermiation (sperm release) requires tubulobulbar complexes. We found that the apical ectoplasmic specialization and tubulobulbar complexes were poorly formed or disrupted in IP6K1 KOs. Deletion of IP6K1 elicited several aberrations, including: 1, sloughing off of round germ cells; 2, disorientation and malformation of elongating/elongated spermatids; 3, degeneration of acrosomes; 4, defects in germ-Sertoli cell interactions and 5, failure of spermiation. Eventually the sperm cells were not released but phagocytosed by Sertoli cells leading to an absence of sperm in the epididymis.

Cell polarity and planar cell polarity (PCP) in spermatogenesis

In adult mammalian testes, spermatids, most notably step 17-19 spermatids in stage IV-VIII tubules, are aligned with their heads pointing toward the basement membrane and their tails toward the tubule lumen. On the other hand, these polarized spermatids also align across the plane of seminiferous epithelium, mimicking planar cell polarity (PCP) found in other hair cells in cochlea (inner ear). This orderly alignment of developing spermatids during spermiogenesis is important to support spermatogenesis, such that the maximal number of developing spermatids can be packed and supported by a fixed population of differentiated Sertoli cells in the limited space of the seminiferous epithelium in adult testes. In this review, we provide emerging evidence to demonstrate spermatid PCP in the seminiferous epithelium to support spermatogenesis. We also review findings in the field regarding the biology of spermatid cellular polarity (e.g., head-tail polarity and apico-basal polarity) and its inter-relationship to spermatid PCP. Furthermore, we also provide a hypothetical concept on the importance of PCP proteins in endocytic vesicle-mediated protein trafficking events to support spermatogenesis through protein endocytosis and recycling.

Expression and localization of myosin VI in developing mouse spermatids

Myosin VI (MVI) is a versatile actin-based motor protein that has been implicated in a variety of different cellular processes, including endo- and exocytic vesicle trafficking, Golgi morphology, and actin structure stabilization. A role for MVI in crucial actin-based processes involved in sperm maturation was demonstrated in Drosophila. Because of the prominence and importance of actin structures in mammalian spermiogenesis, we investigated whether MVI was associated with actin-mediated maturation events in mammals. Both immunofluorescence and ultrastructural analyses using immunogold labeling showed that MVI was strongly linked with key structures involved in sperm development and maturation. During the early stage of spermiogenesis, MVI is associated with the Golgi and with coated and uncoated vesicles, which fuse to form the acrosome. Later, as the acrosome spreads to form a cap covering the sperm nucleus, MVI is localized to the acroplaxome, an actin-rich structure that anchors the acrosome to the nucleus. Finally, during the elongation/maturation phase, MVI is associated with the actin-rich structures involved in nuclear shaping: the acroplaxome, manchette, and Sertoli cell actin hoops. Since this is the first report of MVI expression and localization during mouse spermiogenesis and MVI partners in developing sperm have not yet been identified, we discuss some probable roles for MVI in this process. During early stages, MVI is hypothesized to play a role in Golgi morphology and function as well as in actin dynamics regulation important for attachment of developing acrosome to the nuclear envelope. Next, the protein might also play anchoring roles to help generate forces needed for spermatid head elongation. Moreover, association of MVI with actin that accumulates in the Sertoli cell ectoplasmic specialization and other actin structures in surrounding cells suggests additional MVI functions in spermatid movement across the seminiferous epithelium and in sperm release.

Annexin A2 is critical for blood-testis barrier integrity and spermatid disengagement in the mammalian testis

Throughout spermatogenesis, two important processes occur at late stage VIII of the seminiferous epithelial cycle in the rat testis: preleptotene spermatocytes commence entry into the adluminal compartment and step 19 spermatids release from the seminiferous epithelium. Presently, it is not clear how these processes, which involve extensive restructuring of unique Sertoli-Sertoli and Sertoli-germ cell junctions, are mediated. We aimed to determine whether annexin A2 (ANXA2), a Ca²⁺-dependent and phospholipid-binding protein, participates in cell junction dynamics. To address this, in vitro and in vivo RNA interference studies were performed on prepubertal Sertoli cells and adult rat testes. The endpoints of Anxa2 knockdown were determined by immunoblotting, morphological analyses, fluorescent immunostaining, and barrier integrity assays. In the testis, ANXA2 localized to the Sertoli cell stalk, with specific staining at the blood-testis barrier and the concave (ventral) surface of elongated spermatids. ANXA2 also bound actin when testis lysates were used for immunoprecipitation. Anxa2 knockdown was found to disrupt the Sertoli cell/blood-testis barrier in vitro and in vivo. The disruption in barrier function was substantiated by changes in the localization of claudin-11, zona occludens-1, N-cadherin, and β-catenin. Furthermore, Anxa2 knockdown resulted in spermiation defects caused by a dysfunction of tubulobulbar complexes, testis-specific actin-rich ultrastructures that internalize remnant cell junction components prior to spermiation. Additionally, there were changes in the localization of several tubulobulbar complex component proteins, including actin-related protein 3, cortactin, and dynamin I/II. Our results indicate that ANXA2 is critical for the integrity of the blood-testis barrier and the timely release of spermatids.

Actin Disruption Results in Altered Morphology of Basal Tubulobulbar Complexes in Rat Seminiferous Epithelium

Basal tubulobulbar complexes (TBCs) that occur at attachment sites between neighboring Sertoli cells are subcellular machines that internalize intercellular junctions during movement of spermatocytes from basal to adluminal compartments of the seminiferous epithelium. Each complex consists of an elongate tubular extension of two attached plasma membranes, and is capped at its distal end by a clathrin-coated pit. The tubular region is surrounded by a cuff of actin arranged in a dendritic network. Near the end of the complex, a bulbous region forms that lacks the actin cuff but is closely associated with cisternae of endoplasmic reticulum. The bulb eventually buds from the complex and enters endocytic compartments of the Sertoli cell. Previous research has shown that when the actin network is perturbed using the actin filament-disruptor, cytochalasin D, apical tubulobulbar complexes that are associated with spermatids were associated with lower levels of actin, patchy actin networks and swollen tubular regions. Here we explored the effects of actin network perturbation on the morphology of basal tubulobulbar complexes in stage V seminiferous tubules. Isolated rat testes were perfused ex vivo for one hour with oxygenated Krebs-Henseleit buffer (with BSA) containing either 40 μM cytochalasin D or control solution containing DMSO and perfusion-fixed for electron microscopy. Compared to control, actin cuffs in drug-treated TBCs appeared less uniform and patchy. In addition, the tubular regions of the complexes appeared swollen. Our results are consistent with the conclusion that intact networks of actin filaments are required for maintaining the structural integrity of basal TBCs. Anat Rec, 299:1449-1455, 2016. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Polarity protein Crumbs homolog-3 (CRB3) regulates ectoplasmic specialization dynamics through its action on F-actin organization in Sertoli cells

Crumbs homolog 3 (or Crumbs3, CRB3) is a polarity protein expressed by Sertoli and germ cells at the basal compartment in the seminiferous epithelium. CRB3 also expressed at the blood-testis barrier (BTB), co-localized with F-actin, TJ proteins occludin/ZO-1 and basal ES (ectoplasmic specialization) proteins N-cadherin/β-catenin at stages IV-VII only. The binding partners of CRB3 in the testis were the branched actin polymerization protein Arp3, and the barbed end-capping and bundling protein Eps8, illustrating its possible role in actin organization. CRB3 knockdown (KD) by RNAi in Sertoli cells with an established tight junction (TJ)-permeability barrier perturbed the TJ-barrier via changes in the distribution of TJ- and basal ES-proteins at the cell-cell interface. These changes were the result of CRB3 KD-induced re-organization of actin microfilaments, in which actin microfilaments were truncated, and extensively branched, thereby destabilizing F-actin-based adhesion protein complexes at the BTB. Using Polyplus in vivo-jetPEI as a transfection medium with high efficiency for CRB3 KD in the testis, the CRB3 KD testes displayed defects in spermatid and phagosome transport, and also spermatid polarity due to a disruption of F-actin organization. In summary, CRB3 is an actin microfilament regulator, playing a pivotal role in organizing actin filament bundles at the ES.

The Src non-receptor tyrosine kinase paradigm: New insights into mammalian Sertoli cell biology

Src kinases are non-receptor tyrosine kinases that phosphorylate diverse substrates, which control processes such as cell proliferation, differentiation and survival; cell adhesion; and cell motility. c-Src, the prototypical member of this protein family, is widely expressed by several organs that include the testis. In the seminiferous epithelium of the adult rat testis, c-Src is highest at the tubule lumen during the release of mature spermatids. Other studies show that testosterone regulates spermatid adhesion to Sertoli cells via c-Src, indicating Src phosphorylates key substrates that prompt the disassembly of Sertoli cell-spermatid junctions. A more recent in vitro study reveals that c-Src participates in the internalization of proteins that constitute the blood-testis barrier, which is present between Sertoli cells, suggesting a similar mechanism of junction disassembly is at play during spermiation. In this review, we discuss recent findings on c-Src, with an emphasis on its role in spermatogenesis in the mammalian testis.

An Alternative Model of Tubulobulbar Complex Internalization During Junction Remodeling in the Seminiferous Epithelium of the Rat Testis

Tubulobulbar complexes (TBCs) are elongate subcellular machines responsible for internalizing intercellular junctions during sperm release. Each complex consists of a double-membrane tubular core terminating in a clathrin-coated pit. The core is surrounded by a network of actin filaments, and a distinct swelling or bulb, which lacks an association with actin, develops in the distal third of the structure. The bulb eventually buds from the complex and enters endocytic compartments of the Sertoli cell. The relationship of the actin cuff to the formation and budding of the bulb is not known. To gain insight into this relationship, we perturbed the actin networks of TBCs with cytochalasin D. When isolated testes were perfused with a physiological buffer containing cytochalasin D, apical TBCs at stage VII of spermatogenesis were associated with lower levels of actin compared to controls. At the ultrastructural level, the actin networks in cytochalasin D-treated testes appeared patchy, and ectopic bulbs and swollen tubular regions occurred. When normal untreated samples at early stage VII were analyzed, large elongate bulbs and short tubular sections were observed. Together, these results suggest a new model for TBC vesiculation in which the actin network begins to disassemble and the tubular region begins to swell into a bulb. As actin disassembly continues, the coated pit and most of the tubular region are incorporated into the enlarging bulb. The remaining short neck of the bulb near the base of the complex undergoes scission, and the bulb is internalized.

Testicular histopathology associated with disruption of the Sertoli cell cytoskeleton

Testicular histological alterations following Sertoli cell cytoskeleton disruption are numerous. The Sertoli cell cytoskeleton is comprised of intermediate filaments, microtubules, microfilaments and their direct interacting proteins and performs essential functions including structural support of the seminiferous epithelium, apicobasal movement of elongate spermatids, and release of elongate spermatids from the seminiferous epithelium during spermiation. This review summarizes the histological changes occurring after disruption of the Sertoli cell cytoskeleton, including the signature lesion of seminiferous epithelium sloughing. By presenting examples of histological changes after exposure to toxins or toxicants directly affecting the Sertoli cell cytoskeleton or genetic manipulations of this cytoskeleton, the toxicologist observing similar histological changes associated with exposure to novel compounds can use this information to generate hypotheses about a potential mode of action.

Mechanisms of spermiogenesis and spermiation and how they are disturbed

Haploid round spermatids undergo a remarkable transformation during spermiogenesis. The nucleus polarizes to one side of the cell as the nucleus condenses and elongates, and the microtubule-based manchette sculpts the nucleus into its species-specific head shape. The assembly of the central component of the sperm flagellum, known as the axoneme, begins early in spermiogenesis, and is followed by the assembly of secondary structures needed for normal flagella. The final remodelling of the mature elongated spermatid occurs during spermiation, when the spermatids line up along the luminal edge, shed their residual cytoplasm and are ultimately released into the lumen. Defects in spermiogenesis and spermiation are manifested as low sperm number, abnormal sperm morphology and poor motility and are commonly observed during reproductive toxicant administration, as well as in genetically modified mouse models of male infertility. This chapter summarizes the major physiological processes and the most commonly observed defects in spermiogenesis and spermiation, to aid in the diagnosis of the potential mechanisms that could be perturbed by experimental manipulation such as reproductive toxicant administration.

Novel clathrin/actin-based endocytic machinery associated with junction turnover in the seminiferous epithelium

Tubulobulbar complexes are elaborate clathrin/actin related structures that form at sites of intercellular attachment in the seminiferous epithelium of the mammalian testis. Here we summarize what is currently known about the morphology and molecular composition of these structures and review evidence that the structures internalize intercellular junctions both at apical sites of Sertoli cell attachment to spermatids, and at basal sites where Sertoli cells form the blood-testis barrier. We present updated models of the sperm release and spermatocyte translocation mechanisms that incorporate tubulobulbar complexes into their designs.

A network of spectrin and plectin surrounds the actin cuffs of apical tubulobulbar complexes in the rat

Tubulobulbar complexes (TBCs) are actin-related endocytic structures that internalize intercellular junctions in the seminiferous epithelium. The structures consist of elongate tubular projections of the attached plasma membranes of two adjacent cells that project into Sertoli cells. This double membrane core is cuffed by a dentritic actin network and is capped at its end by a clathrin-coated pit. Here we explore the possibility that elements of the spectrin cytoskeleton are associated with clusters of tubulobulbar complexes that develop at adhesion junctions between late spermatids and Sertoli cells at the apex of the epithelium, and extend what is known about the distribution of plectin at the sites. Cryo-sections of perfusion-fixed testes and apical processes of Sertoli cells mechanically dissociated from perfusion-fixed testes were probed for spectrin, EPB41, and actin and analyzed using conventional fluorescence microscopy and confocal microscopy. Data sets from confocal microscopy were analyzed further in three-dimensional reconstructions using computer software. Additional apical Sertoli cell processes were probed for plectin and analyzed using conventional fluorescence microscopy. Antibodies generated against elements of the spectrin cytoskeleton react with material around and between the actin cuffs of tubulobulbar complexes, but appear excluded from the actin cuffs themselves. A similar staining pattern occurs with a probe for plectin. Immunoelectron microscopy confirmed the staining patterns observed by fluourescence microscopy. Based on our results, we suggest that a network of spectrin and plectin forms a scaffold around tubulobulbar complexes that may provide support for the actin network that cuffs each complex and also link adjacent complexes together.

New insights into roles of tubulobulbar complexes in sperm release and turnover of blood-testis barrier

Tubulobulbar complexes are actin-filament-related structures that form at intercellular junctions in the seminiferous epithelium of mammalian testis. The structures occur both at adhesion junctions between Sertoli cells and the maturing spermatids in apical regions of the epithelium, and at junction complexes between neighboring Sertoli cells near the base of the epithelium. Here, we review the general morphology and molecular composition of tubulobulbar complexes, and also include a description of tubulobulbar complex structure in the human seminiferous epithelium. Although tubulobulbar complexes are unique to the seminiferous epithelium, they have the molecular signature of clathrin-based endocytosis machinery present generally in cells. We review the evidence that tubulobulbar complexes internalize intact intercellular junctions and are significant components of the sperm-release mechanism and the process by which spermatocytes translocate from basal to adluminal compartments of the epithelium.