Evidence for lysosomal exocytosis and release of aggrecan-degrading hydrolases from hypertrophic chondrocytes, in vitro and in vivo

Genomic Effects of Biomechanical Loading in Adolescent Human Growth Plate Cartilage: A Pilot Study

OBJECTIVE

The genomic effects of biomechanical loading on human growth plate cartilage are unknown so far. To address this, we used rare human growth plate biopsies obtained from children undergoing epiphysiodesis and exposed them to precisely controlled mechanical loading using a microloading device. The biopsies were cultured 24 hours after mechanical loading, followed by RNA-sequencing analyses to decipher the genomic regulation.

DESIGN

We conducted RNA-seq analysis of human growth plate cartilage obtained from three patients cultured ex vivo and subjected to cyclical mechanical loading with peak 0.4 N with frequency 0.77 Hz during a 30-second duration, using a specialized microloading device.

RESULTS

Gene ontology analysis revealed novel data showing three significantly upregulated signaling pathways, including notch, oxytocin, and tight junction, and three significantly downregulated signaling pathways, including lysosome, sphingolipid metabolism, and peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor (PPAR) in human growth plate cartilage. Moreover, we found 15 significantly regulated genes within these signaling pathways from all three patients. These genes included PSEN2, HEY1, and NCOR2 from the notch signaling; CACNB1 and PPP3R2 from the oxytocin signaling; ACTR3C, WHAMM, and ARHGEF18 from the tight junction signaling; ARSA, SMPD1, and CD68 from the lysosome signaling; ARSA and SMPD1 from the sphingolipid metabolism signaling; and SLC27A4 and AQP7 from the PPAR signaling pathway. In addition, 20 significantly upregulated genes and six significantly downregulated genes shared between two patient samples were identified.

CONCLUSION

Our study provides the first-ever transcriptomic data of mechanical loading of human growth plate cartilage. These findings can potentially provide genetic targets for future investigations in physiological and pathological bone growth conditions.

Dysregulated lysosomal exocytosis drives protease-mediated cartilage pathogenesis in multiple lysosomal disorders

The classic view of the lysosome as a static recycling center has been replaced with one of a dynamic and mobile hub of metabolic regulation. This revised view raises new questions about how dysfunction of this organelle causes pathology in inherited lysosomal disorders. Here we provide evidence for increased lysosomal exocytosis in the developing cartilage of three lysosomal disease zebrafish models with distinct etiologies. Dysregulated exocytosis was linked to altered cartilage development, increased activity of multiple cathepsin proteases, and cathepsin- and TGFβ-mediated pathogenesis in these models. Moreover, inhibition of cathepsin activity or direct blockade of exocytosis with small molecule modulators improved the cartilage phenotypes, reinforcing a connection between excessive extracellular protease activity and cartilage pathogenesis. This study highlights the pathogenic consequences in early cartilage development arising from uncontrolled release of lysosomal enzymes via exocytosis, and suggests that pharmacological enhancement of this process could be detrimental during tissue development.

General Caspase Inhibition in Primary Chondrogenic Cultures Impacts Their Transcription Profile Including Osteoarthritis-Related Factors

OBJECTIVE

The knowledge about functions of caspases, usually associated with cell death and inflammation, keeps expanding also regarding cartilage. Active caspases are present in the growth plate, and caspase inhibition in limb-derived chondroblasts altered the expression of osteogenesis-related genes. Caspase inhibitors were reported to reduce the severity of cartilage lesions in osteoarthritis (OA), and caspase-3 might represent a promising biomarker for OA prognosis. The objective of this investigation was to decipher the transcriptomic regulation of caspase inhibition in chondrogenic cells.

DESIGN

Limb-derived chondroblasts were cultured in the presence of 2 different inhibitors: Z-VAD-FMK (FMK) and Q-VD-OPH (OPH). A whole transcriptome RNA sequencing was performed as the key analysis.

RESULTS

The analysis revealed a statistically significant increase in the expression of 252 genes in the FMK samples and 163 genes in the OPH samples compared with controls. Conversely, there was a significant decrease in the expression of 290 genes in the FMK group and 188 in the OPH group. Among the top up- and downregulated genes (more than 10 times changed), almost half of them were associated with OA. Both inhibitors displayed the highest upregulation of the inflammatory chemokine Ccl5, the most downregulated gene was the one for mannose receptors Mrc1.

CONCLUSIONS

The obtained datasets pointed to a significant impact of caspase inhibition on the expression of several chondro-/osteogenesis-related markers in an in vitro model of endochondral ossification. Notably, the list of these genes included some encoding for factors associated with cartilage/bone pathologies such as OA.

Comparative label-free proteomic analysis of equine osteochondrotic chondrocytes

Osteochondrosis is a developmental orthopedic disease affecting growing cartilage in young horses. In this study we compared the proteomes of equine chondrocytes obtained from healthy and osteochondrotic cartilage using a label-free mass spectrometry approach. Quantitative changes of some proteins selected for their involvement in different functional pathways highlighted by the bioinformatics analysis, were validated by western blotting, while biochemical alterations of extracellular matrix were confirmed via Raman spectroscopy analysis. In total 1637 proteins were identified, of which 59 were differentially abundant. Overall, the results highlighted differentially represented proteins involved in metabolic and functional pathways that may be related to the failure of the endochondral ossification process occurring in osteochondrosis. In particular, we identified proteins involved in extracellular matrix degradation and organization, vitamin metabolism, osteoblast differentiation, apoptosis, protein folding and localization, signalling and gene expression modulation and lysosomal activities. These results provide valuable new insights to elucidate the underlying molecular mechanisms associated with the development and progression of osteochondrosis. SIGNIFICANCE: Osteochondrosis is a common articular disorder in young horses mainly due to defects in endochondral ossification. The pathogenesis of osteochondrosis is still poorly understood and only a limited number of proteomic studies have been conducted. This study provides a comprehensive characterization of proteomic alterations occurring in equine osteochondrotic chondrocytes, the only resident cell type that modulates differentiation and maturation of articular cartilage. The results evidenced alterations in abundance of proteins involved in functional and metabolic pathways and in extracellular matrix remodelling. These findings could help clarify some molecular aspects of osteochondrosis and open new fields of research for elucidating the pathogenesis of this disease.

Disrupted type II collagenolysis impairs angiogenesis, delays endochondral ossification and initiates aberrant ossification in mouse limbs

Cartilage remodelling and chondrocyte differentiation are tightly linked to angiogenesis during bone development and endochondral ossification. To investigate whether collagenase-mediated cleavage of the major cartilage collagen (collagen II) plays a role in this process, we generated a knockin mouse in which the mandatory collagenase cleavage site at PQG⁷⁷⁵↓⁷⁷⁶LAG, was mutated to PPG⁷⁷⁵↓⁷⁷⁶MPG (Col2a1^Bailey). This approach blocked collagen II cleavage, and the production of putative collagen II matrikines derived from this site, without modifying matrix metalloproteinase expression or activity. We report here that this mouse (Bailey) is viable. It has a significantly expanded growth plate and exhibits delayed and abnormal angiogenic invasion into the growth plate. Deeper electron microscopy analyses revealed that, at around five weeks of age, a small number of blood vessel(s) penetrate into the growth plate, leading to its abrupt shrinking and the formation of a bony bridge. Our results from in vitro and ex vivo studies suggest that collagen II matrikines stimulate the normal branching of endothelial cells and promote blood vessel invasion at the chondro-osseous junction. The results further suggest that failed collagenolysis in Bailey leads to expansion of the hypertrophic zone and formation of a unique post-hypertrophic zone populated with chondrocytes that re-enter the cell cycle and proliferate. The biological rescue of this in vivo phenotype features the loss of a substantial portion of the growth plate through aberrant ossification, and narrowing of the remaining portion that leads to limb deformation. Together, these data suggest that collagen II matrikines stimulate angiogenesis in skeletal growth and development, revealing novel strategies for stimulating angiogenesis in other contexts such as fracture healing and surgical applications.

Kinesin-1 promotes chondrocyte maintenance during skeletal morphogenesis

During skeletal morphogenesis diverse mechanisms are used to support bone formation. This can be seen in the bones that require a cartilage template for their development. In mammals the cartilage template is removed, but in zebrafish the cartilage template persists and the bone mineralizes around the cartilage scaffold. Remodeling of unmineralized cartilage occurs via planar cell polarity (PCP) mediated cell rearrangements that contribute to lengthening of elements; however, the mechanisms that maintain the chondrocyte template that supports perichondral ossification remain unclear. We report double mutants disrupting two zebrafish kinesin-I genes (hereafter kif5Blof) that we generated using CRISPR/Cas9 mutagenesis. We show that zygotic Kif5Bs have a conserved function in maintaining muscle integrity, and are required for cartilage remodeling and maintenance during craniofacial morphogenesis by a PCP-distinct mechanism. Further, kif5Blof does not activate ER stress response genes, but instead disrupts lysosomal function, matrix secretion, and causes deregulated autophagic markers and eventual chondrocyte apoptosis. Ultrastructural and transplantation analysis reveal neighboring cells engulfing extruded kif5Blof chondrocytes. Initial cartilage specification is intact; however, during remodeling, kif5Blof chondrocytes die and the cartilage matrix devoid of hypertrophic chondrocytes remains and impedes normal ossification. Chimeric and mosaic analyses indicate that Kif5B functions cell-autonomously in secretion, nuclear position, cell elongation and maintenance of hypertrophic chondrocytes. Interestingly, large groups of wild-type cells can support elongation of neighboring mutant cells. Finally, mosaic expression of kif5Ba, but not kif5Aa in cartilage rescues the chondrocyte phenotype, further supporting a specific requirement for Kif5B. Cumulatively, we show essential Kif5B functions in promoting cartilage remodeling and chondrocyte maintenance during zebrafish craniofacial morphogenesis.

HIV-1 Tat Promotes Lysosomal Exocytosis in Astrocytes and Contributes to Astrocyte-mediated Tat Neurotoxicity

Tat interaction with astrocytes has been shown to be important for Tat neurotoxicity and HIV/neuroAIDS. We have recently shown that Tat expression leads to increased glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) expression and aggregation and activation of unfolded protein response/endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress in astrocytes and causes neurotoxicity. However, the exact molecular mechanism of astrocyte-mediated Tat neurotoxicity is not defined. In this study, we showed that neurotoxic factors other than Tat protein itself were present in the supernatant of Tat-expressing astrocytes. Two-dimensional gel electrophoresis and mass spectrometry revealed significantly elevated lysosomal hydrolytic enzymes and plasma membrane-associated proteins in the supernatant of Tat-expressing astrocytes. We confirmed that Tat expression and infection of pseudotyped HIV.GFP led to increased lysosomal exocytosis from mouse astrocytes and human astrocytes. We found that Tat-induced lysosomal exocytosis was tightly coupled to astrocyte-mediated Tat neurotoxicity. In addition, we demonstrated that Tat-induced lysosomal exocytosis was astrocyte-specific and required GFAP expression and was mediated by ER stress. Taken together, these results show for the first time that Tat promotes lysosomal exocytosis in astrocytes and causes neurotoxicity through GFAP activation and ER stress induction in astrocytes and suggest a common cascade through which aberrant astrocytosis/GFAP up-regulation potentiates neurotoxicity and contributes to neurodegenerative diseases.

Deficiency of sphingosine-1-phosphate lyase impairs lysosomal metabolism of the amyloid precursor protein

Progressive accumulation of the amyloid β protein in extracellular plaques is a neuropathological hallmark of Alzheimer disease. Amyloid β is generated during sequential cleavage of the amyloid precursor protein (APP) by β- and γ-secretases. In addition to the proteolytic processing by secretases, APP is also metabolized by lysosomal proteases. Here, we show that accumulation of intracellular sphingosine-1-phosphate (S1P) impairs the metabolism of APP. Cells lacking functional S1P-lyase, which degrades intracellular S1P, strongly accumulate full-length APP and its potentially amyloidogenic C-terminal fragments (CTFs) as compared with cells expressing the functional enzyme. By cell biological and biochemical methods, we demonstrate that intracellular inhibition of S1P-lyase impairs the degradation of APP and CTFs in lysosomal compartments and also decreases the activity of γ-secretase. Interestingly, the strong accumulation of APP and CTFs in S1P-lyase-deficient cells was reversed by selective mobilization of Ca(2+) from the endoplasmic reticulum or lysosomes. Intracellular accumulation of S1P also impairs maturation of cathepsin D and degradation of Lamp-2, indicating a general impairment of lysosomal activity. Together, these data demonstrate that S1P-lyase plays a critical role in the regulation of lysosomal activity and the metabolism of APP.