Cold tolerance is unaffected by oxygen availability despite changes in anaerobic metabolism

Insect cold tolerance depends on their ability to withstand or repair perturbations in cellular homeostasis caused by low temperature stress. Decreased oxygen availability (hypoxia) can interact with low temperature tolerance, often improving insect survival. One mechanism proposed for such responses is that whole-animal cold tolerance is set by a transition to anaerobic metabolism. Here, we provide a test of this hypothesis in an insect model system (Thaumatotibia leucotreta) by experimental manipulation of oxygen availability while measuring metabolic rate, critical thermal minimum (CT_min), supercooling point and changes in 43 metabolites in moth larvae at three key timepoints (before, during and after chill coma). Furthermore, we determined the critical oxygen partial pressure below which metabolic rate was suppressed (c. 4.5 kPa). Results showed that altering oxygen availability did not affect (non-lethal) CT_min nor (lethal) supercooling point. Metabolomic profiling revealed the upregulation of anaerobic metabolites and alterations in concentrations of citric acid cycle intermediates during and after chill coma exposure. Hypoxia exacerbated the anaerobic metabolite responses induced by low temperatures. These results suggest that cold tolerance of T. leucotreta larvae is not set by oxygen limitation, and that anaerobic metabolism in these larvae may contribute to their ability to survive in necrotic fruit.

Can respiratory physiology predict thermal niches?

Predicting species responses to global warming is the holy grail of climate change science. As temperature directly affects physiological rates, it is clear that a mechanistic understanding of species vulnerability should be grounded in organismal physiology. Here, we review what respiratory physiology can offer the field of thermal ecology, showcasing different perspectives on how respiratory physiology can help explain thermal niches. In water, maintaining adequate oxygen delivery to fuel the higher metabolic rates under warming conditions can become the weakest link, setting thermal tolerance limits. This has repercussions for growth and scaling of metabolic rate. On land, water loss is more likely to become problematic as long as O2 delivery and pH balance can be maintained, potentially constraining species in their normal activity. Therefore, high temperatures need not be lethal, but can still affect the energy intake of an animal, with concomitant consequences for long-term fitness. While respiratory challenges and adaptive responses are diverse, there are clear recurring elements such as oxygen uptake, CO2 excretion, and water homeostasis. We show that respiratory physiology has much to offer the field of thermal ecology and call for an integrative, multivariate view incorporating respiratory challenges, thermal responses, and energetic consequences. Fruitful areas for future research are highlighted.

Evolution of air breathing: oxygen homeostasis and the transitions from water to land and sky

Life originated in anoxia, but many organisms came to depend upon oxygen for survival, independently evolving diverse respiratory systems for acquiring oxygen from the environment. Ambient oxygen tension (PO2) fluctuated through the ages in correlation with biodiversity and body size, enabling organisms to migrate from water to land and air and sometimes in the opposite direction. Habitat expansion compels the use of different gas exchangers, for example, skin, gills, tracheae, lungs, and their intermediate stages, that may coexist within the same species; coexistence may be temporally disjunct (e.g., larval gills vs. adult lungs) or simultaneous (e.g., skin, gills, and lungs in some salamanders). Disparate systems exhibit similar directions of adaptation: toward larger diffusion interfaces, thinner barriers, finer dynamic regulation, and reduced cost of breathing. Efficient respiratory gas exchange, coupled to downstream convective and diffusive resistances, comprise the "oxygen cascade"-step-down of PO2 that balances supply against toxicity. Here, we review the origin of oxygen homeostasis, a primal selection factor for all respiratory systems, which in turn function as gatekeepers of the cascade. Within an organism's lifespan, the respiratory apparatus adapts in various ways to upregulate oxygen uptake in hypoxia and restrict uptake in hyperoxia. In an evolutionary context, certain species also become adapted to environmental conditions or habitual organismic demands. We, therefore, survey the comparative anatomy and physiology of respiratory systems from invertebrates to vertebrates, water to air breathers, and terrestrial to aerial inhabitants. Through the evolutionary directions and variety of gas exchangers, their shared features and individual compromises may be appreciated.

Metabolic and water loss rates of two cryptic species in the African velvet worm genus Opisthopatus (Onychophora)

Velvet worms (Onychophora) are characterised by a dearth of mechanisms to retain water, yet recently identified cryptic species are located in areas with seemingly different climates. Using flow-through respirometry, this study determined the metabolic, water loss and cuticular water loss rates of two cryptic species of Opisthopatus cinctipes s.l. from locations that differ in their current climate. When controlling for trial temperature and body mass, velvet worms from the drier and warmer site had significantly lower water loss rates than the wetter and cooler site. Mass-corrected metabolic rate and cuticular water loss did not differ significantly between the two sites. The scaling exponent for the relationship between log metabolic rate and log body mass for O. cinctipes s.l. declined with an increase in temperature from 5 to 15 °C. Females in the two cryptic Opisthopatus species had higher metabolic, water loss and cuticular water loss rates than males, which may represent the increased energetic demands of embryonic growth and development in these viviparous taxa.

Metabolic responses of Glossina pallidipes (Diptera: Glossinidae) puparia exposed to oxygen and temperature variation: implications for population dynamics and subterranean life

Understanding the factors affecting insect gas exchange in subterranean environments is critical to understanding energy budgets and predicting mortality under field conditions. Here, we examine the metabolic rate (MR) responses of tsetse puparia, which remain underground for ca. 1 month in this life-stage, to varying oxygen and temperature. First, the effects of temperature and oxygen on puparial MR were investigated by ramping temperature from 15 to 35°C under 10, 21 or 40% O(2). Overall, temperature was the dominant effect on puparial MR although O(2) had small but significant impacts. Second, critical O(2) concentration (P(CRIT)) for MR of puparia was examined across a range of oxygen concentrations (0-40%). P(CRIT) was 6% O(2) which is similar to P(CRIT) in other basal arthropods but relatively high for inactive or subterranean insects. Third, we asked if puparia exposed to anoxia might experience oxygen debt, potentially indicative of anaerobic metabolism or cellular repair. Metabolic responses to anoxia were limited or insignificant, but MR was marginally elevated (∼ 15%) in anoxia-exposed (4h) puparia by 12h post-anoxia. Finally, we examined the ability of puparia to withstand water submersion, thus simulating flooding conditions frequently experienced in tropical soil habitats. Puparia were unable to survive submersion for >24h suggesting limited flooding tolerance. These novel results suggest that soil conditions experienced by puparia should not be limiting for MR, except possibly under high temperature-low O(2) conditions. Due to a large safety margin between P(CRIT) and soil oxygen levels and limited effects of oxygen on metabolism during temperature ramping experiments, we suggest that Glossina pallidipes puparia are not particularly susceptible to oxygen availability in their natural environment. However, soil flooding associated with tropical rainfall likely imposes strong selection on tsetse populations and may have had important effects for tsetse energy budgets and evolution.

Phenotypic plasticity of gas exchange pattern and water loss in Scarabaeus spretus (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae): deconstructing the basis for metabolic rate variation

Investigation of gas exchange patterns and modulation of metabolism provide insight into metabolic control systems and evolution in diverse terrestrial environments. Variation in metabolic rate in response to environmental conditions has been explained largely in the context of two contrasting hypotheses, namely metabolic depression in response to stressful or resource-(e.g. water) limited conditions, or elevation of metabolism at low temperatures to sustain life in extreme conditions. To deconstruct the basis for metabolic rate changes in response to temperature variation, here we undertake a full factorial study investigating the longer- and short-term effects of temperature exposure on gas exchange patterns. We examined responses of traits of gas exchange [standard metabolic rate (SMR); discontinuous gas exchange (DGE) cycle frequency; cuticular, respiratory and total water loss rate (WLR)] to elucidate the magnitude and form of plastic responses in the dung beetle, Scarabaeus spretus. Results showed that short- and longer-term temperature variation generally have significant effects on SMR and WLR. Overall, acclimation to increased temperature led to a decline in SMR (from 0.071±0.004 ml CO2 h–1 in 15°C-acclimated beetles to 0.039±0.004 ml CO2 h–1 in 25°C-acclimated beetles measured at 20°C) modulated by reduced DGE frequency (15°C acclimation: 0.554±0.027 mHz, 20°C acclimation: 0.257±0.030 mHz, 25°C acclimation: 0.208±0.027 mHz recorded at 20°C), reduced cuticular WLRs (from 1.058±0.537 mg h–1 in 15°C-acclimated beetles to 0.900±0.400 mg h–1 in 25°C-acclimated beetles measured at 20°C) and reduced total WLR (from 4.2±0.5 mg h–1 in 15°C-acclimated beetles to 3.1±0.5 mg h–1 in 25°C-acclimated beetles measured at 25°C). Respiratory WLR was reduced from 2.25±0.40 mg h–1 in 15°C-acclimated beetles to 1.60±0.40 mg h–1 in 25°C-acclimated beetles measured at 25°C, suggesting conservation of water during DGE bursts. Overall, this suggests water conservation is a priority for S. spretus exposed to longer-term temperature variation, rather than elevation of SMR in response to low temperature acclimation, as might be expected from a beetle living in a relatively warm, low rainfall summer region. These results are significant for understanding the evolution of gas exchange patterns and trade-offs between metabolic rate and water balance in insects and other terrestrial arthropods.

Critical oxygen partial pressures and maximal tracheal conductances for Drosophila melanogaster reared for multiple generations in hypoxia or hyperoxia

In Drosophila melanogaster and other insects, increases in atmospheric oxygen partial pressure (aPO(2)) tend to increase adult body size and decrease tracheal diameters and tracheolar proliferation. If changes in tracheal morphology allow for functional compensation for aPO(2), we would predict that higher aPO(2) would be associated with higher critical PO(2) values (CritPO(2)) and lower maximal tracheal conductances (G(max)). We measured CritPO(2) and G(max) for adult and larval vinegar flies reared for 7-9 generations in 10, 21 or 40 kPa O(2). The CritPO(2), CO(2) emission rates and G(max) values were generally independent of the rearing PO(2) these flies had experienced, suggesting that minimal functional changes in tracheal capacities occurred in response to rearing PO(2). Larvae were able to continue activity during 20 min of anoxia. The lack of multigenerational rearing PO(2) effects on tracheal function suggests that the functional compensation at the whole-body level due to tracheal morphological changes in response to aPO(2) may be minimal; alternatively the benefits of such compensation may occur in specific tissues or during processes not assessed by these methods. In larvae, the CritPO(2) and the capacity for movement in anoxia suggest adaptations for life in hypoxic organic matter.

Effects of flow rate and temperature on cyclic gas exchange in tsetse flies (Diptera, Glossinidae)

Air flow rates may confound the investigation and classification of insect gas exchange patterns. Here we report the effects of flow rates (50, 100, 200, 400 ml min(-1)) on gas exchange patterns in wild-caught Glossina morsitans morsitans from Zambia. At rest, G. m. morsitans generally showed continuous or cyclic gas exchange (CGE) but no evidence of discontinuous gas exchange (DGE). Flow rates had little influence on the ability to detect CGE in tsetse, at least in the present experimental setup and under these laboratory conditions. Importantly, faster flow rates resulted in similar gas exchange patterns to those identified at lower flower rates suggesting that G. m. morsitans did not show DGE which had been incorrectly identified as CGE at lower flow rates. While CGE cycle frequency was significantly different among the four flow rates (p<0.05), the direction of effects was inconsistent. Indeed, inter-individual variation in CGE cycle frequency exceeded flow rate treatment variation. Using a laboratory colony of closely related, similar-sized G. morsitans centralis we subsequently investigated the effects of temperature, gender and feeding status on CGE pattern variation since these factors can influence insect metabolic rates. At 100 ml min(-1) CGE was typical of G. m. centralis at rest, although it was significantly more common in females than in males (57% vs. 43% of 14 individuals tested per gender). In either sex, temperature (20, 24, 28 and 32 degrees C) had little influence on the number of individuals showing CGE. However, increases in metabolic rate with temperature were modulated largely by increases in burst volume and cycle frequency. This is unusual among insects showing CGE or DGE patterns because increases in metabolic rate are usually modulated by increases in frequency, but either no change or a decline in burst volume.

Physiological tolerances account for range limits and abundance structure in an invasive slug

Despite the importance of understanding the mechanisms underlying range limits and abundance structure, few studies have sought to do so. Here we use a terrestrial slug species, Deroceras panormitanum, that has invaded a remote, largely predator-free, Southern Ocean island as a model system to do so. Across Marion Island, slug density does not conform to an abundant centre distribution. Rather, abundance structure is characterized by patches and gaps. These are associated with this desiccation-sensitive species' preference for biotic and drainage line habitats that share few characteristics except for their high humidity below the vegetation surface. The coastal range margin has a threshold form, rapidly rising from zero to high density. Slugs do not occur where soil-exchangeable Na values are higher than 3000 mg kg(-1), and in laboratory experiments, survival is high below this value but negligible above it. Upper elevation range margins are a function of the inability of this species to survive temperatures below an absolute limit of -6.4 degrees C, which is regularly exceeded at 200 m altitude, above which slug density declines to zero. However, the linear decline in density from the coastal peak is probably also a function of a decline in performance or time available for activity. This is probably associated with an altitudinal decline in mean annual soil temperature. These findings support previous predictions made regarding the form of density change when substrate or climatic factors set range limits.