Steroid-induced cardiac contractility requires exogenous glucose, glycolysis and the sarcoplasmic reticulum in rainbow trout

Adrenergic prolongation of action potential duration in rainbow trout myocardium via inhibition of the delayed rectifier potassium current, IKr

Catecholamines mediate the 'fight or flight' response in a wide variety of vertebrates. The endogenous catecholamine adrenaline increases heart rate and contractile strength to raise cardiac output. The increase in contractile force is driven in large part by an increase in myocyte Ca²⁺ influx on the L-type Ca current (I_CaL) during the cardiac action potential (AP). Here, we report a K⁺- based mechanism that prolongs AP duration (APD) in fish hearts following adrenergic stimulation. We show that adrenergic stimulation inhibits the delayed rectifier K⁺ current (I_Kr) in rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) cardiomyocytes. This slows repolarization and prolongs APD which may contribute to positive inotropy following adrenergic stimulation in fish hearts. The endogenous ligand, adrenaline (1 μM), which activates both α- and β-ARs reduced maximal I_Kr tail current to 61.4 ± 3.9% of control in atrial and ventricular myocytes resulting in an APD prolongation of ~20% at both 50 and 90% repolarization. This effect was reproduced by the α-specific adrenergic agonist, phenylephrine (1 μM), but not the β-specific adrenergic agonist isoproterenol (1 μM). Adrenaline (1 μM) in the presence of β₁ and β₂-blockers (1 μM atenolol and 1 μM ICI-118551, respectively) also inhibited I_Kr. Thus, I_Kr suppression following α-adrenergic stimulation leads to APD prolongation in the rainbow trout heart. This is the first time this mechanism has been identified in fish and may act in unison with the well-known enhancement of I_CaL following adrenergic stimulation to prolong APD and increase cardiac inotropy.

Thermal acclimation and seasonal acclimatization: a comparative study of cardiac response to prolonged temperature change in shorthorn sculpin

Seasonal thermal remodelling (acclimatization) and laboratory thermal remodelling (acclimation) can induce different physiological changes in ectothermic animals. As global temperatures are changing at an increasing rate, there is urgency to understand the compensatory abilities of key organs such as the heart to adjust under natural conditions. Thus, the aim of the present study was to directly compare the acclimatization and acclimatory response within a single eurythermal fish species, the European shorthorn sculpin (Myoxocephalus scorpio). We used current- and voltage-clamp to measure ionic current densities in both isolated atrial and ventricular myocytes from three groups of fish: (1) summer-caught fish kept at 12°C ('summer-acclimated'); (2) summer-caught fish kept at 3°C ('cold acclimated'); and (3) fish caught in March ('winter-acclimatized'). At a common test temperature of 7.5°C, action potential (AP) was shortened by both winter acclimatization and cold acclimation compared with summer acclimation; however, winter acclimatization caused a greater shortening than did cold acclimation. Shortening of AP was achieved mostly by a significant increase in repolarizing current density (I _Kr and I _K1) following winter acclimatization, with cold acclimation having only minor effects. Compared with summer acclimation, the depolarizing L-type calcium current (I _Ca) was larger following winter acclimatization, but again, there was no effect of cold acclimation on I _Ca Interestingly, the other depolarizing current, I _Na, was downregulated at low temperatures. Our further analysis shows that ionic current remodelling is primarily due to changes in ion channel density rather than current kinetics. In summary, acclimatization profoundly modified the electrical activity of the sculpin heart while acclimation to the same temperature for >1.5 months produced very limited remodelling effects.

Cardioprotective Mechanisms of Exenatide in Isoprenaline-induced Myocardial Infarction: Novel Effects on Myocardial α-Estrogen Receptor Expression and IGF-1/IGF-2 System

Myocardial infarction (MI) is one of the main causes of morbidity and mortality in diabetic patients. The antidiabetic glucagon-like polypeptide-1 receptor (GLP-1R) agonists, such as exenatide, proved to confer cardioprotection; however, their exact mechanisms are not fully elucidated. Although the cardioprotective effect of α-estrogen receptor (ERα) activation is well established, its involvement in exenatide-induced cardioprotection has never been investigated. Moreover, modulation of insulin-like growth factor-1/2 (IGF-1/IGF-2) system by exenatide, and the consequent effect on cardiomyocyte apoptosis, is yet to be established. Current study aimed to investigate the cardioprotective potential of exenatide versus the standard cardioprotective agent, 17β-estradiol, against isoprenaline (ISO)-induced MI in rats. MI-insulted group showed electrocardiographic abnormalities, elevated serum cardiac markers, higher serum IGF-2 level along with histopathological abnormalities. Treatment with exenatide and/or 17β-estradiol, commenced 8 weeks before ISO insult, ameliorated these anomalies with maximum cardioprotection achieved with combined treatment. This was associated with upregulation of both ERα and IGF-1R, and downregulation of IGF-2R in left ventricles. Inhibition of ERs in Langendorff preparations confirmed their involvement in mediating exenatide-induced cardioprotective effect. Current study showed that the GLP-1R agonist exenatide exerted cardioprotection associated with upregulation of ERα and modulation of IGF-1/IGF-2 signaling in favor of antiapoptosis.

Dichloroacetate selectively improves cardiac function and metabolism in female and male rainbow trout

Cardiac tissue from female rainbow trout demonstrates a sex-specific preference for exogenous glucose and glycolysis, impaired Ca(2+) handling, and a greater tolerance for hypoxia and reoxygenation than cardiac tissue from male rainbow trout. We tested the hypothesis that dichloroacetate (DCA), an activator of pyruvate dehydrogenase, enhances cardiac energy metabolism and Ca(2+) handling in female preparations and provide cardioprotection for hypoxic male tissue. Ventricle strips from sexually immature fish with very low (male) and nondetectable (female) plasma sex steroids were electrically paced in oxygenated or hypoxic Ringer solution with or without 1 mM DCA. In the presence of 5 mM glucose, aerobic tissue from male trout could be paced at a higher frequency (1.79 vs. 1.36 Hz) with lower resting tension and less contractile dysfunction than female tissue. At 0.5 Hz, DCA selectively reduced resting tension below baseline values and lactate efflux by 75% in aerobic female ventricle strips. DCA improved the functional recovery of developed twitch force, reduced lactate efflux by 50%, and doubled citrate in male preparations after hypoxia-reoxygenation. Independent of female sex steroids, reduced myocardial pyruvate dehydrogenase activity and impaired carbohydrate oxidation might explain the higher lactate efflux, compromised function of the sarcoplasmic reticulum, and reduced mechanical performance of aerobic female tissue. Elevated oxidative metabolism and reduced glycolysis might also underlie the beneficial effects of DCA on the mechanical recovery of male cardiac tissue after hypoxia-reoxygenation. These results support the use of rainbow trout as an experimental model of sex differences of cardiovascular energetics and function, with the potential for modifying metabolic phenotypes and cardioprotection independent of sex steroids.

Limited effects of exogenous glucose during severe hypoxia and a lack of hypoxia-stimulated glucose uptake in isolated rainbow trout cardiac muscle

We examined whether exogenous glucose affects contractile performance of electrically paced ventricle strips from rainbow trout under conditions known to alter cardiomyocyte performance, ion regulation and energy demands. Physiological levels of d-glucose did not influence twitch force development for aerobic preparations (1) paced at 0.5 or 1.1 Hz, (2) at 15 or 23°C, (3) receiving adrenergic stimulation or (4) during reoxygenation with or without adrenaline after severe hypoxia. Contractile responses to ryanodine, an inhibitor of Ca(2+) release from the sarcoplasmic reticulum, were also not affected by exogenous glucose. However, glucose did attenuate the fall in twitch force during severe hypoxia. Glucose uptake was assayed in non-contracting ventricle strips using 2-[(3)H] deoxy-d-glucose (2-DG) under aerobic and hypoxic conditions, at different incubation temperatures and with different inhibitors. Based upon a lack of saturation of 2-DG uptake and incomplete inhibition of uptake by cytochalasin B and d-glucose, 2-DG uptake was mediated by a combination of facilitated transport and simple diffusion. Hypoxia stimulated lactate efflux sixfold to sevenfold with glucose present, but did not increase 2-DG uptake or reduce lactate efflux in the presence of cytochalasin B. Increasing temperature (14 to 24°C) also did not increase 2-DG uptake, but decreasing temperature (14 to 4°C) reduced 2-DG uptake by 45%. In conclusion, exogenous glucose improves mechanical performance under hypoxia but not under any of the aerobic conditions applied. The extracellular concentration of glucose and cold temperature appear to determine and limit cardiomyocyte glucose uptake, respectively, and together may help define a metabolic strategy that relies predominantly on intracellular energy stores.

Carbohydrate energy reserves and effects of food deprivation in male and female rainbow trout

We investigated the effects of nutritional state on carbohydrate, lipid, and protein stores in the heart, liver, and white skeletal muscle of male and female rainbow trout. For fed animals we also partitioned glycogen into fractions based on acid solubility. Fish (10-14 months-old, ~400-500 g) were held at 14 °C and either fed (1% of body weight, every other day) or deprived of food for 14 days. Under fed conditions, glycogen was increased 54% in ventricles from males compared with females, and elevated in the liver (87%) and white muscle (70%) in sexually-maturing versus immature males. Acid soluble glycogen predominated over the acid insoluble fraction in all tissues and was similar between sexes. Food deprivation 1) selectively reduced glycogen and free glucose in male ventricles by ~30%, and 2) did not change glycogen in the liver or white muscle, or triglyceride, protein or water levels in any tissues for both sexes. These data highlight sex differences in teleost cardiac stores and the metabolism of carbohydrates, and contrast with mammals where cardiac glycogen increases during fasting and acid insoluble glycogen is a significant fraction. Increased glycogen in the hearts of male rainbow trout appears to pre-empt sex-specific cardiac growth while storage of acid soluble glycogen may reflect a novel strategy for efficient synthesis and mobilization of glycogen in fishes.

Sex differences in energy metabolism and performance of teleost cardiac tissue

This study examined the effects of different oxygenation levels and substrate availability on cardiac performance, metabolism, and biochemistry in sexually immature male and female rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss). Ventricle strips were electrically paced (0.5 Hz, 14 degrees C) in hyperoxic or hypoxic Ringer solution. Our results demonstrate that 1) males sustain isometric force production (F) longer than females under hyperoxia (P O2 = 640 mmHg) with exogenous glucose present; 2) contractility is not maintained under moderate (P O2 = 130 mmHg) or severe hypoxia (P O2 = 10-20 mmHg) with glucose in either sex; however, following reoxygenation, F is higher in females compared with males; and 3) female tissue has higher lactate levels, net lactate efflux, and lactate dehydrogenase activity than males, whereas males have higher glycogen, citrate synthase, and beta-hydroxy acyl-CoA dehydrogenase activities, and greater inotropic responses to exogenous glucose and octanoate. No sex differences were detected in responsiveness to epinephrine and inhibitors of glucose transport or activities of hexokinase and pyruvate kinase. We conclude that sex differences exist in rainbow trout cardiac tissue: females appear to prefer glycolysis for ATP production, whereas males have a higher capacity for aerobic and lipid metabolism.