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Tross J, Wolf H, Stemme T, Pfeffer SE. Locomotion in the pseudoscorpion Chelifer cancroides - forward, backward and upside down walking in an eight-legged arthropod. J Exp Biol 2022; 225:275033. [PMID: 35438154 DOI: 10.1242/jeb.243930] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2021] [Accepted: 04/11/2022] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
While insect locomotion has been intensively studied, there are comparably few studies investigating octopedal walking behaviour, and very little is known about pseudoscorpions in particular. Therefore, we performed an extensive locomotion analysis during forward, backward and upside down walking in the cosmopolitan pseudoscorpion Chelifer cancroides. During forward locomotion, we observed C. cancroides to freeze locomotion frequently for short time periods. These microstops were barely visible to the naked eye with a duration of 100-200 ms. Our locomotion analysis revealed that C. cancroides performs a statically stable and highly coordinated alternating tetrapod gait during forward and backward walking, with almost complete inversion of the tetrapod schemes, but no rigidly fixed leg coordination during upside down walks with low walking speeds up to 4 body lengths per second. Highest speeds (up to 17 body lengths per second), mainly achieved by consistent leg coordination and strong phase shifts, were observed during backward locomotion (escape behaviour), while forward walking was characterised by lower speeds and phase shifts around 10% between two loosely coupled leg groups within one tetrapod. That is, during the movement of one tetrapod group, the last and the third leg are almost synchronous in their swing phases, as are the second and the first leg. A special role of the second leg pair was demonstrated, probably mainly for stability reasons and related to the large pedipalps.
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Affiliation(s)
- Johanna Tross
- Institute of Neurobiology, Ulm University, Albert-Einstein-Allee 11, 89081 Ulm, Germany
| | - Harald Wolf
- Institute of Neurobiology, Ulm University, Albert-Einstein-Allee 11, 89081 Ulm, Germany
| | - Torben Stemme
- Institute of Neurobiology, Ulm University, Albert-Einstein-Allee 11, 89081 Ulm, Germany
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2
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OUP accepted manuscript. Biol J Linn Soc Lond 2022. [DOI: 10.1093/biolinnean/blab176] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
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3
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Nirody JA. Universal Features in Panarthropod Inter-Limb Coordination during Forward Walking. Integr Comp Biol 2021; 61:710-722. [PMID: 34043783 PMCID: PMC8427173 DOI: 10.1093/icb/icab097] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Terrestrial animals must often negotiate heterogeneous, varying environments. Accordingly, their locomotive strategies must adapt to a wide range of terrain, as well as to a range of speeds to accomplish different behavioral goals. Studies in Drosophila have found that inter-leg coordination patterns (ICPs) vary smoothly with walking speed, rather than switching between distinct gaits as in vertebrates (e.g., horses transitioning between trotting and galloping). Such a continuum of stepping patterns implies that separate neural controllers are not necessary for each observed ICP. Furthermore, the spectrum of Drosophila stepping patterns includes all canonical coordination patterns observed during forward walking in insects. This raises the exciting possibility that the controller in Drosophila is common to all insects, and perhaps more generally to panarthropod walkers. Here, we survey and collate data on leg kinematics and inter-leg coordination relationships during forward walking in a range of arthropod species, as well as include data from a recent behavioral investigation into the tardigrade Hypsibius exemplaris. Using this comparative dataset, we point to several functional and morphological features that are shared among panarthropods. The goal of the framework presented in this review is to emphasize the importance of comparative functional and morphological analyses in understanding the origins and diversification of walking in Panarthropoda. Introduction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jasmine A Nirody
- Center for Studies in Physics and Biology, Rockefeller University, New York, NY 10065, USA.,All Souls College, University of Oxford, Oxford, OX1 4AL, UK
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4
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Brandt EE, Sasiharan Y, Elias DO, Mhatre N. Jump takeoff in a small jumping spider. J Comp Physiol A Neuroethol Sens Neural Behav Physiol 2021; 207:153-164. [PMID: 33712882 DOI: 10.1007/s00359-021-01473-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/27/2020] [Revised: 02/04/2021] [Accepted: 02/23/2021] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
Jumping in animals presents an interesting locomotory strategy as it requires the generation of large forces and accurate timing. Jumping in arachnids is further complicated by their semi-hydraulic locomotion system. Among arachnids, jumping spiders (Family Salticidae) are agile and dexterous jumpers. However, less is known about jumping in small salticid species. Here we used Habronattus conjunctus, a small jumping spider (body length ~ 4.5 mm) to examine its jumping performance and compare it to that of other jumping spiders and insects. We also explored how legs are used during the takeoff phase of jumps. Jumps were staged between two raised platforms. We analyzed jumping videos with DeepLabCut to track 21 points on the cephalothorax, abdomen, and legs. By analyzing leg liftoff and extension patterns, we found evidence that H. conjunctus primarily uses the third legs to power jumps. We also found that H. conjunctus jumps achieve lower takeoff speeds and accelerations than most other jumping arthropods, including other jumping spiders. Habronattus conjunctus takeoff time was similar to other jumping arthropods of the same body mass. We discuss the mechanical benefits and drawbacks of a semi-hydraulic system of locomotion and consider how small spiders may extract dexterous jumps from this locomotor system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erin E Brandt
- Department of Environmental Sciences, Policy, and Management, University of California, Berkeley, USA. .,Department of Biology, University of Western Ontario, London, ON, Canada.
| | - Yoshan Sasiharan
- Department of Biology, University of Western Ontario, London, ON, Canada
| | - Damian O Elias
- Department of Environmental Sciences, Policy, and Management, University of California, Berkeley, USA
| | - Natasha Mhatre
- Department of Biology, University of Western Ontario, London, ON, Canada
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5
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Boehm C, Schultz J, Clemente C. Understanding the limits to the hydraulic leg mechanism: the effects of speed and size on limb kinematics in vagrant arachnids. J Comp Physiol A Neuroethol Sens Neural Behav Physiol 2021; 207:105-116. [PMID: 33666723 DOI: 10.1007/s00359-021-01468-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/07/2020] [Revised: 02/11/2021] [Accepted: 02/15/2021] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Among invertebrates, spiders (order Araneae) may be unique in their relationship between speed and mass as they use a combination of direct muscular contractions to flex their appendages, and internally controlled hydraulic pressure to extend them. To explore this, we measured maximal running speeds in 128 individual lycosids and sparassids, which varied in mass between 0.0054 and 3.01 g. We show maximum speed scaled with M0.353, while mean running speed scaled much lower as M0.197. We show no strong limitation of the hydraulic mechanism, with leg extension speed being equal to or greater than leg flexion speed. The reduction in leg flexion speed, only apparent in the distal most joint of the limb, might be a result of the requirement for flexor muscles to act against the hydraulic system. We explored the role of the limbs and found an alternating pattern of joint use among limbs, which may represent a strategy to avoid interference with adjacent limbs during running. Furthermore, we observed a reduced movement speed (increased leg dragging) in the rearward facing fourth limb with size. This may be linked to the increased size of the abdomen in larger spiders and may suggest a speed limitation in larger individuals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Charlotte Boehm
- School of Science and Engineering, University of the Sunshine Coast, Sippy Downs, QLD, Australia
| | - Johanna Schultz
- School of Science and Engineering, University of the Sunshine Coast, Sippy Downs, QLD, Australia.,The Robotics and Autonomous Systems Group, CSIRO Data61, Brisbane, QLD, Australia
| | - Christofer Clemente
- School of Science and Engineering, University of the Sunshine Coast, Sippy Downs, QLD, Australia.
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Giant steps: adhesion and locomotion in theraphosid tarantulas. J Comp Physiol A Neuroethol Sens Neural Behav Physiol 2021; 207:179-190. [PMID: 33386944 DOI: 10.1007/s00359-020-01456-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/23/2020] [Revised: 11/17/2020] [Accepted: 11/19/2020] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
Theraphosid tarantulas are large spiders that bear dense hairy adhesive pads on the distal parts of their legs: scopula and claw tufts. These structures allow them to climb on vertical smooth surfaces and contribute to prey capture. While adult females and juveniles remain most of the time in their burrows, adult males actively walk searching for females during the reproductive period. Adhesion and locomotion thus play important roles in the ecology and reproduction of these animals. In this paper, we review the current state of the knowledge on adhesion and locomotion in tarantulas, focusing on functional and evolutionary morphology.
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Hao X, Ma W, Liu C, Qian Z, Ren L, Ren L. Locomotor mechanism of Haplopelma hainanum based on energy conservation analysis. Biol Open 2020; 9:bio055301. [PMID: 33148608 PMCID: PMC7746670 DOI: 10.1242/bio.055301] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/23/2020] [Accepted: 10/27/2020] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Spiders use their special hydraulic system to achieve superior locomotor performance and high drive efficiency. To evaluate the variation in hydraulic joint angles and energy conversion during the hydraulic drive of spiders, kinematic data of Haplopelma hainanum were collected through a 3D motion capture and synchronization analysis system. Complete stride datasets in the speed range of 0.027 to 0.691 m s-1 were analyzed. Taking the tibia-metatarsu joint as an example, it was found that speed did not affect the angle variation range of the hydraulic joint. Based on the analysis of locomotor mechanics, a bouncing gait was mainly used by H. hainanum during terrestrial locomotion and their locomotor mechanism did not change with increasing speed. Because of the spiders' hydraulic system, the mass-specific power per unit weight required to move the center of mass increased exponentially with increasing speed. The bouncing gait and the hydraulic system contributed to the lower transport cost at low speed, while the hydraulic system greatly increased the transport cost at high speed. The results of this study could provide a reference for the design of high-efficiency driving hydraulic systems of spider-like robots.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xin Hao
- School of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Jilin University, Changchun 130022, China
- Key Laboratory of Bionic Engineering, Ministry of Education, Jilin University, Changchun 130022, China
| | - Wenxing Ma
- School of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Jilin University, Changchun 130022, China
| | - Chunbao Liu
- School of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Jilin University, Changchun 130022, China
- Key Laboratory of Bionic Engineering, Ministry of Education, Jilin University, Changchun 130022, China
| | - Zhihui Qian
- Key Laboratory of Bionic Engineering, Ministry of Education, Jilin University, Changchun 130022, China
| | - Luquan Ren
- Key Laboratory of Bionic Engineering, Ministry of Education, Jilin University, Changchun 130022, China
| | - Lei Ren
- Key Laboratory of Bionic Engineering, Ministry of Education, Jilin University, Changchun 130022, China
- School of Mechanical, Aerospace and Civil Engineering, University of Manchester, Manchester M13 9PL, UK
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Schwerdt L, de Villalobos A, Pérez-Miles F, Ferretti N. Thermal preferences and effects of temperature on fitness parameters of an endemic Argentinean tarantula (Grammostola vachoni). CAN J ZOOL 2020. [DOI: 10.1139/cjz-2019-0180] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Mygalomorphs depend on thermal microhabitats for successful behavior, but their thermal biology is still poorly known. Grammostola vachoni Schiapelli and Gerschman, 1961 is an endemic tarantula from Argentina and it is listed as vulnerable in the IUCN Red List. However, little is known about its biology; therefore, we attempted to explore the thermal biology of juveniles and adult females of G. vachoni under laboratory conditions. We characterized the preferred temperatures, evaluated the relationship between temperature and locomotor performance, and calculated the thermal sensitivity. Individuals showed a peak temperature preference and spent 40% of the total time at 25–29 °C; we did not find any significant differences in temperature preference between juveniles and females. We found that locomotor performance is strongly affected by high temperatures. Different sprint speeds of juveniles and females were found at 5, 35, and 40 °C. The highest thermal sensitivity was recorded in the lowest temperature range and thermal sensitivity was lowest in the highest temperature ranges. Our results are relevant in the context of climate change, because thermal parameters constitute a useful tool to explore some possible effects of this change on body temperature and thus the physiological performance and vulnerability of ectotherms like G. vachoni.
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Affiliation(s)
- L. Schwerdt
- Centro de Recursos Renovables de la Zona Semiárida-CONICET, San Andrés 850, 8000 Bahía Blanca, Argentina
| | - A.E. de Villalobos
- Centro de Recursos Renovables de la Zona Semiárida-CONICET, San Andrés 850, 8000 Bahía Blanca, Argentina
- Departamento de Biología, Bioquímica y Farmacia, Universidad Nacional del Sur, San Juan 670, 8000 Bahía Blanca, Argentina
| | - F. Pérez-Miles
- Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de la República, Iguá 4225, 11400 Montevideo, Uruguay
| | - N. Ferretti
- Instituto de Ciencias Biológicas y Biomédicas del Sur-CONICET, San Juan 671, 8000 Bahía Blanca, Argentina
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Analysis of Spiders' Joint Kinematics and Driving Modes under Different Ground Conditions. Appl Bionics Biomech 2020; 2019:4617212. [PMID: 31929827 PMCID: PMC6935789 DOI: 10.1155/2019/4617212] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/17/2019] [Accepted: 11/22/2019] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Although the hydraulic transmission system in spider legs is well known, the spider's mechanism of locomotion during different terrain conditions still need to be explored further. In this study, spider locomotion was observed in detail on three pavement test platforms: horizontal hard pavement, horizontal soft pavement, and sloped soft pavement. The movement characteristics and joint kinematics of Grammostola rosea legs were captured by high-speed cameras and Simi Motion 3D tracking software. These observations showed that the gait pattern was basically consistent with an alternating tetrapod gait; however, the pattern observed on the sloped soft pavement was slightly different from that of the two horizontal pavements. In particular, the duty factor of the spiders was 0.683 when walking on the horizontal hard pavement, 0.668 on the horizontal soft pavement, and 0.630 on the sloped soft pavement. The duty factor was greater than 60% in all three pavement environments, which was minimal when walking on the sloped soft pavement. This pattern showed that spiders might have superior stability when walking, but their stability decreased in the sloped soft pavement environment. The ranges of joint angles through the spiders' gait cycles in every pavement environment were also analysed and compared. The findings showed that the hydraulically driven femur-patella and tibia-metatarsal joint angles varied widely, which confirmed that hydraulically driven joints had major functions and obvious effects on the walking process. The kinematic patterns identified in this study provide improved understanding of the hydraulic transmission mechanisms, the factors that affect motion stability, and the design of biomimetic systems.
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Silva-Pereyra V, Fábrica CG, Biancardi CM, Pérez-Miles F. Kinematics of male Eupalaestrus weijenberghi (Araneae, Theraphosidae) locomotion on different substrates and inclines. PeerJ 2019; 7:e7748. [PMID: 31579616 PMCID: PMC6766366 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.7748] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/05/2019] [Accepted: 08/25/2019] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The mechanics and energetics of spider locomotion have not been deeply investigated, despite their importance in the life of a spider. For example, the reproductive success of males of several species is dependent upon their ability to move from one area to another. The aim of this work was to describe gait patterns and analyze the gait parameters of Eupalaestrus weijenberghi (Araneae, Theraphosidae) in order to investigate the mechanics of their locomotion and the mechanisms by which they conserve energy while traversing different inclinations and surfaces. METHODS Tarantulas were collected and marked for kinematic analysis. Free displacements, both level and on an incline, were recorded using glass and Teflon as experimental surfaces. Body segments of the experimental animals were measured, weighed, and their center of mass was experimentally determined. Through reconstruction of the trajectories of the body segments, we were able to estimate their internal and external mechanical work and analyze their gait patterns. RESULTS Spiders mainly employed a walk-trot gait. Significant differences between the first two pairs and the second two pairs were detected. No significant differences were detected regarding the different planes or surfaces with respect to duty factor, time lags, stride frequency, and stride length. However, postural changes were observed on slippery surfaces. The mechanical work required for traversing a level plane was lower than expected. In all conditions, the external work, and within it the vertical work, accounted for almost all of the total mechanical work. The internal work was extremely low and did not rise as the gradient increased. DISCUSSION Our results support the idea of considering the eight limbs functionally divided into two quadrupeds in series. The anterior was composed of the first two pairs of limbs, which have an explorative and steering purpose and the posterior was more involved in supporting the weight of the body. The mechanical work to move one unit of mass a unit distance is almost constant among the different species tested. However, spiders showed lower values than expected. Minimizing the mechanical work could help to limit metabolic energy expenditure that, in small animals, is relatively very high. However, energy recovery due to inverted pendulum mechanics only accounts for only a small fraction of the energy saved. Adhesive setae present in the tarsal, scopulae, and claw tufts could contribute in different ways during different moments of the step cycle, compensating for part of the energetic cost on gradients which could also help to maintain constant gait parameters.
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Affiliation(s)
- Valentina Silva-Pereyra
- Unidad de Investigación en Biomecánica de la Locomoción Humana, Departamento de Biofísica, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad de la República, Montevideo, Uruguay
| | - C Gabriel Fábrica
- Unidad de Investigación en Biomecánica de la Locomoción Humana, Departamento de Biofísica, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad de la República, Montevideo, Uruguay
| | - Carlo M. Biancardi
- Laboratorio de Biomecánica y Análisis del Movimiento, Departamento de Ciencias Biológicas, Centro Universitario Regional Litoral Norte, Universidad de la República, Paysandú, Uruguay
| | - Fernando Pérez-Miles
- Sección Entomología, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de la República, Montevideo, Uruguay
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Wilshin S, Shamble PS, Hovey KJ, Harris R, Spence AJ, Hsieh ST. Limping following limb loss increases locomotor stability. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2018; 221:jeb.174268. [PMID: 30072386 DOI: 10.1242/jeb.174268] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/14/2017] [Accepted: 07/18/2018] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Abstract
Although many arthropods have the ability to voluntarily lose limbs, how these animals rapidly adapt to such an extreme perturbation remains poorly understood. It is thought that moving with certain gaits can enable efficient, stable locomotion; however, switching gaits requires complex information flow between and coordination of an animal's limbs. We show here that upon losing two legs, spiders can switch to a novel, more statically stable gait, or use temporal adjustments without a gait change. The resulting gaits have higher overall static stability than the gaits that would be imposed by limb loss. By decreasing the time spent in a low-stability configuration - effectively 'limping' over less-stable phases of the stride - spiders increased the overall stability of the less statically stable gait with no observable reduction in speed, as compared with the intact condition. Our results shed light on how voluntary limb loss could have persisted evolutionarily among many animals, and provide bioinspired solutions for robots when they break or lose limbs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Simon Wilshin
- Structure and Motion Laboratory, Royal Veterinary College, University of London, Hawkshead Lane, Hatfield, Hertfordshire AL9 7TA, UK
| | - Paul S Shamble
- Department of Bioengineering, Temple University, Philadelphia, PA 19122, USA
| | - Kyle J Hovey
- Department of Biology, Temple University, Philadelphia, PA 19122, USA.,Department of Biology, John Carroll University, Cleveland, OH 44118, USA
| | - Ryan Harris
- Structure and Motion Laboratory, Royal Veterinary College, University of London, Hawkshead Lane, Hatfield, Hertfordshire AL9 7TA, UK
| | - Andrew J Spence
- Department of Bioengineering, Temple University, Philadelphia, PA 19122, USA
| | - S Tonia Hsieh
- Department of Biology, Temple University, Philadelphia, PA 19122, USA
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Frantsevich L. A Houdini's trick in a fly: Leg unfolding with the aid of transient hinges in an extricating Calliphora vicina (Diptera: Calliphoridae). ARTHROPOD STRUCTURE & DEVELOPMENT 2016; 45:2-13. [PMID: 26795557 DOI: 10.1016/j.asd.2016.01.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/27/2015] [Accepted: 01/02/2016] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
Legs in a fly pupa are tightly folded in Z-configuration: the femur points forward. The fly emerges from the pupa with all legs stretched backwards. How does the fly turn long femora inside the tight puparium? Flies were captured during emergence at various moments of progress out of the puparium and at once fixed in ethanol, postfixed in Bouin's solution. Specimens were ranged by the grade of progressive extrication and maturation. Legs were excised, their configurations photographed. Legs are anchored to the VIII. abdominal segment of the puparium with the pupal sheath. Some podomers were arched or buckled yet in pharate adults. At the initial moment of extrication, new buckles appeared in femora, they split femora into 2-3 subpodomers. Instead of turning the whole femur, the fly dragged through the puparium a chain of short subpodomers linked together with transient hinges. Hinges emerged in unsclerotized areas of the tubular podomer, close to sclerotized areas (juvenile sclerites). During extrication, legs were stretched passively. This process lasted for 1-3 min, initial phase - few seconds. Residual distortions were left in hind legs of free juvenile adults. Mechanics of buckling and straightening is discussed from the viewpoint of strength of materials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leonid Frantsevich
- Schmalhausen-Institute of Zoology, B. Chmielnicky str., 15, Kiev-30, 01601, Ukraine.
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Knight K. Tarantula coordination disintegrates in heat. J Exp Biol 2015. [DOI: 10.1242/jeb.122218] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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