Influence of female reproductive state and of fishing-capture stress on the oxygen uptake rate of a viviparous elasmobranch

In animals discarded after a fishing capture event, the elicited stress response necessary to ensure their survival is energetically costly. This energy is diverted from other important biological activities, including growth and reproduction, possibly impairing them. Given that elasmobranchs are among the most threatened vertebrate groups, estimating capture-induced energetic changes and comparing these variations to the energy requirements of pregnancy maintenance is necessary. In pregnant southern fiddler rays (Trygonorrhina dumerilii), we measured changes in oxygen uptake rate (ṀO₂ ; a proxy for metabolic rate and energy usage) in response to trawling simulation and air exposure, and estimated the oxygen requirements of sustaining late-term pregnancy and embryos. ṀO₂ was measured in pregnant females, before (prestress ṀO₂ ) and after trawling simulation (after-capture ṀO₂ ), and again after females gave birth (postpartum ṀO₂ ). After-capture ṀO₂ was 31.7% lower than ṀO₂ measured in minimally stressed females, suggesting a reduction in energy expenditure. This reduction is likely triggered by an initially excessive energetic investment in the stress response, and is aimed at shutting down nonessential activities to redirect energy to processes fundamental for survival. Prestress ṀO₂ was 78.5% higher than postpartum ṀO₂ . Capture simulation decreased ṀO₂ to values similar to those observed postpartum, suggesting a capture-induced reduction in oxygen and energy allocation to pregnancy and embryonic respiration, which could be associated with reproductive impairments. These data, by better estimating the impact of capture and discard on energetic requirements and reproductive fitness, may support the introduction of area and/or seasonal closures to fishing.

Diel Rhythm and Thermal Independence of Metabolic Rate in a Benthic Shark

Biological rhythms that are mediated by exogenous factors, such as light and temperature, drive the physiology of organisms and affect processes ranging from cellular to population levels. For elasmobranchs (i.e. sharks, rays, and skates), studies documenting diel activity and movement patterns indicate that many species are crepuscular or nocturnal in nature. However, few studies have investigated the rhythmicity of elasmobranch physiology to understand the mechanisms underpinning these distinct patterns. Here, we assess diel patterns of metabolic rates in a small meso-predator, the epaulette shark (Hemiscyllium ocellatum), across ecologically relevant temperatures and upon acutely removing photoperiod cues. This species possibly demonstrates behavioral sleep during daytime hours, which is supported herein by low metabolic rates during the day and a 1.7-fold increase in metabolic rates at night. From spring to summer seasons, where average average water temperature temperatures for this species range 24.5 to 28.5 °C, time of day, and not temperature, had the strongest influence on metabolic rate. These results indicate that this species, and perhaps other similar species from tropical and coastal environments, may have physiological mechanisms in place to maintain metabolic rate on a seasonal time scale regardless of temperature fluctuations that are relevant to their native habitats.

Best practices for non-lethal blood sampling of fish via the caudal vasculature

Blood sampling through the caudal vasculature is a widely used technique in fish biology for investigating organismal health and physiology. In live fishes, it can provide a quick, easy and relatively non-invasive method for obtaining a blood sample (cf. cannulation and cardiac puncture). Here, a general set of recommendations are provided for optimizing the blood sampling protocol that reflects best practices in animal welfare and sample integrity. This includes selecting appropriate use of anaesthetics for blood sampling as well as restraint techniques for situations where sedation is not used. In addition, ideal sampling environments where the fish can freely ventilate and strategies for minimizing handling time are discussed. This study summarizes the techniques used for extracting blood from the caudal vasculature in live fishes, highlighting the phlebotomy itself, the timing of sampling events and acceptable blood sample volumes. This study further discuss considerations for selecting appropriate physiological metrics when sampling in the caudal region and the potential benefits that this technique provides with respect to long-term biological assessments. Although general guidelines for blood sampling are provided here, it should be recognized that contextual considerations (e.g., taxonomic diversity, legal matters, environmental constraints) may influence the approach to blood sampling. Overall, it can be concluded that when done properly, blood sampling live fishes through the caudal vasculature is quick, efficient and minimally invasive, thus promoting conditions where live release of focal animals is possible.

Evolution of cellular stress response mechanisms

The cellular stress response (CSR) is pervasive to all domains of life. It has shaped the interaction between organisms and their environment since the origin of the first cell. Although the CSR has been subject to a myriad of nuanced modifications in the various branches of life present today, its core features remain preserved. The scientific literature covering the CSR is enormous and the broad scope of this brief overview was challenging. However, it is critical to conceptually understand how cells respond to stress in a holistic sense and to point out how fundamental aspects of the CSR framework are integrated. It was necessary to be extremely selective and not feasible to even mention many interesting and important developments in this expansive field. The purpose of this overview is to sketch out general and emerging CSR concepts with an emphasis on the initial cellular strain resulting from stress (macromolecular damage) and the evolutionarily most highly conserved elements of the CSR. Examples emphasize fish and aquatic invertebrates to highlight what is known in organisms beyond mammals, yeast, and other common models. Nonetheless, select pioneering studies using canonical models are also considered and the concepts discussed are applicable to all cells. More detail on important aspects of the CSR in aquatic animals is provided in the accompanying articles of this special issue.

The endemic and endangered Maugean Skate (Zearaja maugeana) exhibits short-term severe hypoxia tolerance

The endangered and range-restricted Maugean skate (Zearaja maugeana) is subjected to large environmental variability coupled with anthropogenic stressors in its endemic habitat, Macquarie Harbour, Tasmania. However, little is known about the basic biology/physiology of this skate, or how it may respond to future environmental challenges predicted from climate change and/or increases in human activities such as aquaculture. These skate live at a preferred depth of 5-15 m where the dissolved oxygen (DO) levels are moderate (~55% air saturation), but can be found in areas of the Harbour where DO can range from 100% saturation to anoxia. Given that the water at their preferred depth is already hypoxic, we sought to investigate their response to further decreases in DO that may arise from potential increases in anthropogenic stress. We measured oxygen consumption, haematological parameters, tissue-enzyme capacity and heat shock protein (HSP) levels in skate exposed to 55% dissolved O₂ saturation (control) and 20% dissolved O₂ saturation (hypoxic) for 48 h. We conclude that the Maugean skate appears to be an oxyconformer, with a decrease in the rate of O₂ consumption with increasing hypoxia. Increases in blood glucose and lactate at 20% O₂ suggest that skate are relying more on anaerobic metabolism to tolerate periods of very low oxygen. Despite these metabolic shifts, there was no difference in HSP70 levels between groups, suggesting this short-term exposure did not elicit a cellular stress response. The metabolic state of the skate suggests that low oxygen stress for longer periods of time (i.e. >48 h) may not be tolerable and could potentially result in loss of habitat or shifts in their preferred habitat. Given its endemic distribution and limited life-history information, it will be critical to understand its tolerance to environmental challenges to create robust conservation strategies.

Glucose and urea metabolic enzymes are differentially phosphorylated during freezing, anoxia, and dehydration exposures in a freeze tolerant frog

Vertebrate freeze tolerance requires multiple adaptations underpinned by specialized biochemistry. Freezing of extracellular water leads to intracellular dehydration as pure water is incorporated into growing ice crystals and also results in the cessation of blood supply to tissues, creating an anoxic cellular environment. Hence, the freeze tolerant wood frog, Rana sylvatica, must endure both dehydration and anoxia stresses in addition to freezing. The metabolic responses to freezing, dehydration and anoxia involve both protein/enzyme adaptations and the production of metabolites with metabolic or osmotic functions, particularly glucose and urea. The present study uses a phosphoproteome analysis to examine the differential phosphorylation of metabolic enzymes involved in the production of these two metabolites in liver in response to freezing, anoxia, or dehydration exposures. Our results show stress-specific responses in the abundance of phosphopeptides retrieved from nine glycolytic enzymes and three urea cycle enzymes in liver of wood frogs exposed to 24 h freezing, 24 h anoxia, or dehydration to 40% of total body water loss, as compared with 5 °C acclimated controls. Data show changes in the abundance of phosphopeptides belonging to glycogen phosphorylase (GP) and phosphofructokinase 2 (PFK2) that were consistent with differential phosphorylation control of glycogenolysis and a metabolic block at PFK1 that can facilitate glucose synthesis as the cryoprotectant during freezing. Anoxia-exposed animals showed similar changes in GP phosphorylation but no changes to PFK2; changes that would facilitate mobilization of glycogen as a fermentative fuel for anaerobic glycolysis. Urea is commonly produced as a compatible osmolyte in response to amphibian dehydration. Selected urea cycle enzymes showed small changes in phosphopeptide abundance in response to dehydration, but during freezing differential phosphorylation occurred that may facilitate this ATP expensive process when energy resources are sparse. These results add to the growing body of literature demonstrating the importance and efficiency of reversible protein phosphorylation as a regulatory mechanism allowing animals to rapidly respond to environmental stress.

Diel cycling hypoxia enhances hypoxia-tolerance in rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss): evidence of physiological and metabolic plasticity

Many fish naturally encounter a daily cycle of hypoxia but it is unclear whether this exposure hardens hypoxia-intolerant fish to future hypoxia or leads to accumulated stress and death. Rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) is a putatively hypoxia-sensitive species found in rivers and estuaries that may routinely experience hypoxic events. Trout were exposed to 1 of 4 135h treatments in a swim-tunnel respirometer: 1) air-saturated control (20.7 kPa PO2); 2) diel cycling O2 (20.7-4.2 kPa over 24h); 3) acute hypoxia (130h at 20.7 kPa PO2 followed by 5h at 4.2 kPa PO2); 4) the mean oxygen tension (12.4 kPa PO2) experienced by the diel cycled fish. Some responses were similar in diel O2 cycled and mean PO2-treated fish but overall exposure to ecologically-representative diel hypoxia cycles improved hypoxia tolerance. Diel hypoxia-induced protective responses included increased inducible HSP70 concentration and mean corpuscular hemoglobin concentration, as well as reduced plasma cortisol. Acclimation to diel hypoxia allowed metabolic rates to decline during hypoxia, reduced oxygen debt following subsequent exposures, and allowed fish to return to an anabolic phenotype. The data demonstrate that acute diel cycling hypoxia improves hypoxia tolerance in previously intolerant fish through the activation of cellular protective mechanisms and a reduction in metabolic O2 requirements.

Osmoregulation in the Plotosidae Catfish: Role of the Salt Secreting Dendritic Organ

Unlike other marine teleosts, the Plotosidae catfishes reportedly have an extra-branchial salt secreting dendritic organ (DO). Salinity acclimation [brackishwater (BW) 3aaa, seawater (SWcontrol) 34aaa, and hypersaline water (HSW) 60aaa] for 14 days was used to investigate the osmoregulatory abilities of Plotosus lineatus through measurements of blood chemistry, muscle water content (MWC), Na⁺/K⁺-ATPase (NKA) specific activity and ion transporter expression in gills, DO, kidney and intestine. Ion transporter expression was determined using immunoblotting, immunohistochemistry (IHC) and quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR). HSW elevated mortality, plasma osmolality and ions, and hematocrit, and decreased MWC indicating an osmoregulatory challenge. NKA specific activity and protein levels were significantly higher in DO compared to gill, kidney and intestine at all salinities. NKA specific activity increased in kidney and posterior intestine with HSW but only kidney showed correspondingly higher NKA α-subunit protein levels. Since DO mass was greater in HSW, the total amount of DO NKA activity expressed per gram fish was greater indicating higher overall capacity. Gill NKA and V-ATPase protein levels were greater with HSW acclimation but this was not reflected in NKA activity, mRNA or ionocyte abundance. BW acclimation resulted in lower NKA activity in gill, kidney and DO. Cl^- levels were better regulated and the resulting strong ion ratio in BW suggests a metabolic acidosis. Elevated DO heat shock protein 70 levels in HSW fish indicate a cellular stress. Strong NKA and NKCC1 (Na⁺:K⁺:2Cl^- cotransporter1) co-localization was observed in DO parenchymal cells, which was rare in gill ionocytes. NKCC1 immunoblot expression was only detected in DO, which was highest at HSW. Cystic fibrosis transmembrane regulator Cl^- channel (CFTR) localize apically to DO NKA immunoreactive cells. Taken together, the demonstration of high NKA activity in DO coexpressed with NKCC1 and CFTR indicates the presence of the conserved secondary active Cl^- secretion mechanism found in other ion transporting epithelia suggesting a convergent evolution with other vertebrate salt secreting organs. However, the significant osmoregulatory challenge of HSW indicates that the DO may be of limited use under more extreme salinity conditions in contrast to the gill based ionoregulatory strategy of marine teleosts.

Pass the salt: physiological consequences of ecologically relevant hyposmotic exposure in juvenile gummy sharks (Mustelus antarcticus) and school sharks (Galeorhinus galeus)

Estuarine habitats are frequently used as nurseries by elasmobranch species for their protection and abundant resources; however, global climate change is increasing the frequency and severity of environmental challenges in these estuaries that may negatively affect elasmobranch physiology. Hyposmotic events are particularly challenging for marine sharks that osmoconform, and species-specific tolerances are not well known. Therefore, we sought to determine the effects of an acute (48 h) ecologically relevant hyposmotic event (25.8 ppt) on the physiology of two juvenile shark species, namely the school shark (Galeorhinus galeus), listed by the Australian Environmental Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act as 'conservation dependent', and the gummy shark (Mustelus antarcticus), from the Pittwater Estuary (Australia). In both species, we observed a decrease in plasma osmolality brought about by selective losses of NaCl, urea and trimethylamine N-oxide, as well as decreases in haemoglobin, haematocrit and routine oxygen consumption. Heat-shock protein levels varied between species during the exposure, but we found no evidence of protein damage in any of the tissues tested. Although both species seemed to be able to cope with this level of osmotic challenge, overall the school sharks exhibited higher gill Na⁺/K⁺-ATPase activity and ubiquitin concentrations in routine and experimental conditions, a larger heat-shock protein response and a smaller decrease in routine oxygen consumption during the hyposmotic exposure, suggesting that there are species-specific responses that could potentially affect their ability to withstand longer or more severe changes in salinity. Emerging evidence from acoustic monitoring of sharks has indicated variability in the species found in the Pittwater Estuary during hyposmotic events, and together, our data may help to predict species abundance and distribution in the face of future global climate change.