Effects of Acute Exercise on Sensory and Executive Processing Tasks

Effects of exercise intervention on executive function in children with overweight and obesity: a systematic review and meta-analysis

Background

Weight control in children depends on executive function. Previous studies have shown that exercise interventions can effectively improve children's executive function. However, the effects of these interventions on children with overweight and obesity remain unclear and require further investigation. This systematic review and meta-analysis was conducted to evaluate the effects of exercise interventions on executive function-related indicators in children with overweight and obesity.

Methods

Randomized controlled trials (RCTs) investigating the effects of exercise interventions on executive functions in children with overweight and obesity were included by searching PubMed, Web of Science, EMbase, Cochrane Library, ProQuest, Scopus, CNKI, China Wanfang, and VIP databases. The quality of the included studies was assessed using the Cochrane risk of bias assessment tool. RevMan 5.4 software was used for effect size pooling, forest plot creation, and subgroup analyses. Stata 16.0 software was employed for publication bias testing and sensitivity analysis. The evidence levels of the results were evaluated using the GRADEpro tool.

Results

This meta-analysis included a total of 13 studies. The results indicate that exercise interventions may help improve executive functions in children with overweight and obesity. Specifically, inhibitory control (standardized mean (SMD) = -0.59, 95% confidence interval (CI) [-0.89 to -0.29], Z = 3.85, P < 0.001) and cognitive flexibility (SMD = -0.54, 95% CI [-1.06 to -0.01], Z = 2.01, P < 0.05) showed moderate effect sizes. Working memory exhibited a smaller effect size (SMD = 0.40, 95% CI [-0.69 to -0.10], Z = 2.61, P < 0.01), while attention did not show significant improvement (SMD = 0.13, 95% CI [-0.39 to 0.65], Z = 0.50, P > 0.05).

Conclusion

The results of this meta-analysis indicate that exercise interventions have significant benefits for inhibitory control, working memory, and cognitive flexibility in children with overweight and obesity, but the impact on attention is not significant. Moreover, the effects of inhibitory control interventions are influenced by exercise duration, exercise intensity, exercise type, and age.

Optimal dose and type of exercise improve walking velocity in adults with Parkinson's disease: a systematic review and Bayesian network meta-analysis

To examine the dose-response relationship between specific types of exercise for improving walking velocity in Parkinson's disease (PD). This systematic review and network meta-analysis included searches of PubMed, Medline, Embase, PsycINFO, Cochrane Library, and Web of Science were searched from inception until February 18th, 2024. Data analysis was performed using R software with the MBNMA and RJAGS packages. Outcome indicators were measured as mean standard deviation (SMD) along with 95% confidence intervals (95% CrI). The network's risk of bias was independently evaluated by two reviewers employing the ROB2 tool. Our review encompassed 54 studies with 2,828 PD patients, examining the dose-response effects of different exercises on walking velocity. Aerobic Exercise (AE) demonstrated the greatest improvement at an optimal dose of 1,400 METs-min/week (SMD:1.215, 95% Crl: 0.113 to 2.306). Both Multicomponent Exercise (Mul) (SMD: 1.202, 95% Crl: 0.193 to 2.231) and Sensory Exercise (SE) (SMD: 0.649, 95% Crl: 0.139 to 1.183) showed optimal outcomes at a dose of 1,000 METs-min/week. Resistance Training (RT) was most effective at 750 METs-min/week (SMD:0.778, 95% Crl: 0.062 to 1.549), while Mind-Body Exercise (MBE) yielded significant improvements at a lower optimal dose of 500 METs-min/week (SMD: 0.580, 95% Crl: 0.218 to 1.137), offering valuable insights for exercise prescription in PD management. Various types of exercise showed specific optimal benefits at corresponding doses, among which AE was the most effective in improving the walking speed of PD patients at 1,400 Mets*min/week.Trial registration: PROSPERO (CRD42024506919).

A systematic review and Bayesian meta-analysis provide evidence for an effect of acute physical activity on cognition in young adults

Physical exercise is a potential intervention for enhancing cognitive function across the lifespan. However, while studies employing long-term exercise interventions consistently show positive effects on cognition, studies using single acute bouts have produced mixed results. Here, a systematic review and meta-analysis was conducted to determine the impact of acute exercise on cognitive task performance in healthy young adults. A Bayesian hierarchical model quantified probabilistic evidence for a modulatory relationship by synthesizing 651 effect sizes from 113 studies from PsychInfo and Google Scholar representing 4,390 participants. Publication bias was mitigated using the trim-and-fill method. Acute exercise was found to have a small beneficial effect on cognition (g = 0.13 ± 0.04; BF = 3.67) and decrease reaction time. A meta-analysis restricted to executive function tasks revealed improvements in working memory and inhibition. Meta-analytic estimates were consistent across multiple priors and likelihood functions. Physical activities were categorized based on exercise type (e.g., cycling) because many activities have aerobic and anaerobic components, but this approach may limit comparison to studies that categorize activities based on metabolic demands. The current study provides an updated synthesis of the existing literature and insights into the robustness of acute exercise-induced effects on cognition. Funding provided by the United States Army Research Office.

The speed of sight: Individual variation in critical flicker fusion thresholds

The critical flicker fusion threshold is a psychophysical measure commonly used to quantify visual temporal resolution; the fastest rate at which a visual system can discriminate visual signals. Critical flicker fusion thresholds vary substantially among species, reflecting different ecological niches and demands. However, it is unclear how much variation exists in flicker fusion thresholds between healthy individuals of the same species, or how stable this attribute is over time within individuals. In this study, we assessed both inter- and intra-individual variation in critical flicker fusion thresholds in a cohort of healthy human participants within a specific age range, using two common psychophysical methods and three different measurements during each session. The resulting thresholds for each method were highly correlated. We found a between-participant maximum difference of roughly 30 Hz in flicker fusion thresholds and we estimated a 95% prediction interval of 21 Hz. We used random-effects models to compare between- and within-participant variance and found that approximately 80% of variance was due to between-individual differences, and about 10% of the variance originated from within-individual differences over three sessions. Within-individual thresholds did not differ significantly between the three sessions in males, but did in females (P<0.001 for two methods and P<0.05 for one method), indicating that critical flicker fusion thresholds may be more variable in females than in males.

Mid-Term and Long-Lasting Psycho-Cognitive Benefits of Bidomain Training Intervention in Elderly Individuals with Mild Cognitive Impairment

Background: This study investigated whether combining simultaneous physical and cognitive training yields superior cognitive outcomes compared with aerobic training alone in individuals with mild cognitive impairment (MCI) and whether these benefits persist after four weeks of detraining. Methods: Forty-four people with MCI (11 males and 33 females) aged 65 to 75 years were randomly assigned to an 8-week, twice-weekly program of either aerobic training (AT group, n = 15), aerobic training combined with cognitive games (ACT group, n = 15), or simply reading for controls (CG group, n = 14). Selective attention (Stroop), problem-solving (Hanoi Tower), and working memory (Digit Span) tasks were used to assess cognitive performances at baseline, in the 4th (W4) and 8th weeks (W8) of training, and after 4 weeks of rest (W12). Results: Both training interventions induced beneficial effects on all tested cognitive performance at W4 (except for the number of moves in the Hanoi tower task) and W8 (all p <0.001), with the ACT group exhibiting a more pronounced positive impact than the AT group (p < 0.05). This advantage was specifically observed at W8 in tasks such as the Stroop and Tower of Hanoi (% gain ≈40% vs. ≈30% for ACT and AT, respectively) and the digit span test (% gain ≈13% vs. ≈10% for ACT and AT, respectively). These cognitive improvements in both groups, with the greater ones in ACT, persisted even after four weeks of detraining, as evidenced by the absence of a significant difference between W8 and W12 (p > 0.05). Concerning neuropsychological assessments, comparable beneficial effects were recorded following both training regimens (all p < 0.05 from pre- to post-intervention). The control group did not show any significant improvement in most of the cognitive tasks. Conclusions: The greater mid-term and long-lasting effects of combined simultaneous physical-cognitive training underscores its potential as a cost-effective intervention for the prevention and management of cognitive decline. While these results are valuable in guiding optimal physical and mental activity recommendations for adults with MCI, further neurophysiological-based studies are essential to offer robust support and deepen our understanding of the mechanisms underlying these promising findings.

Virtual reality as a tool to explore multisensory processing before and after engagement in physical activity

Introduction

This pilot study employed a non-randomized control trial design to explore the impact of physical activity within a virtual reality (VR) environment on multisensory processing among community-dwelling older adults.

Methods

The investigation compared both chronic (over 6 weeks) and acute effects of VR-based physical activity to a reading control group. The evaluation metrics for multisensory processing included audiovisual response time (RT), simultaneity judgments (SJ), sound-induced flash illusion (SIFI), and temporal order judgments (TOJ). A total of 13 older adults were provided with VR headsets featuring custom-designed games, while another 14 older adults were assigned to a reading-based control group.

Results

Results indicated that acute engagement in physical activity led to higher accuracy in the SIFI task (experimental group: 85.6%; control group: 78.2%; p = 0.037). Additionally, both chronic and acute physical activity resulted in quicker response times (chronic: experimental group = 336.92; control group = 381.31; p = 0.012; acute: experimental group = 333.38; control group = 383.09; p = 0.006). Although the reading group showed a non-significant trend for greater improvement in mean RT, covariate analyses revealed that this discrepancy was due to the older age of the reading group.

Discussion

The findings suggest that immersive VR has potential utility for enhancing multisensory processing in older adults. However, future studies must rigorously control for participant variables like age and sex to ensure more accurate comparisons between experimental and control conditions.

The brain in motion-cognitive effects of simultaneous motor activity

During the last 30 years, a large number of behavioral studies have investigated the effect of simultaneous exercise on cognitive functions. The heterogeneity of the results has been attributed to different parameters, such as intensity or modality of physical activity, and the investigated cognitive processes. More recent methodological improvements have enabled to record electroencephalography (EEG) during physical exercise. EEG studies combining cognitive tasks with exercise have described predominantly detrimental effects on cognitive processes and EEG parameters. However, differences in the underlying rationale and the design of EEG versus behavioral studies make direct comparisons between both types of studies difficult. In this narrative review of dual-task experiments we evaluated behavioral and EEG studies and discuss possible explanations for the heterogeneity of results and for the discrepancy between behavioral and EEG studies. Furthermore, we provide a proposal for future EEG studies on simultaneous motion to be a useful complement to behavioral studies. A crucial factor might be to find for each cognitive function the motor activity that matches this function in terms of attentional focus. This hypothesis should be investigated systematically in future studies.

Effects of Moderate-to-Vigorous Acute Exercise on Conscious Perception and Visual Awareness

Background: the effect of acute exercise on cognition covers almost all stages of information processing, but few studies have focused on visual awareness. Reports on the appearance of faint speed-changes in the perception of stimuli were used as an index for visual awareness. Visual awareness was assessed after exercise or rest. Aside from the detection of speed-changes, speed-change discrimination was added as an index of perception. Results: the results showed that reports on the appearance of faint speed-changes were affected by acute aerobic exercise. The d' index was higher after exercise. The hit rate for speed-change detection was marginally significantly higher after exercise than after the sedentary test condition. Analysis of the results obtained for the discrimination task showed that discrimination speed was boosted only when subjects were aware of the speed-change. Importantly, neither false alarm rate nor response bias was affected by exercise. Conclusions: acute moderate- to vigorous-intensity aerobic exercise improved subjects' awareness of speed changes. In addition, there was a perceptual advantage due to exercise.

Effects of exercise interventions on executive function in old adults with mild cognitive impairment: A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials

AIMS

To assess the effect of exercise interventions on subdomains of executive function (EF) in older adults with mild cognitive impairment (MCI).

METHODS

Nine electronic databases were comprehensively searched from their inception to February 2021. Randomized controlled trials examining the effect of exercise training on EF in MCI were included.

RESULTS

Twenty-four eligible articles involving 2278 participants were identified. The results showed that exercise interventions had positive benefits on working memory, switching and inhibition in MCI. Subgroup analysis based on exercise prescriptions revealed that both aerobatic exercise and mind-body exercise had similar positive effect size on working memory. However, only mind-body exercise had significant effect on switching. Exercise training with moderate frequency (3-4 times/week) had larger effect size than low frequency (1-2 times/week) and only moderate frequency had positive benefits on switching. Both short (4-12 weeks), medium (13-24 weeks) and long (more than 24 weeks) exercise duration significantly ameliorate working memory and switching, however with short duration having slight larger effect sizes than medium and long.

CONCLUSION

Exercise significantly improves three subdomains of EF in MCI, especially mind-body exercise. Exercise training sticking to at least 4 weeks with 3-4 times a week tends to have larger effect size.

Changes in working memory performance and cortical activity during acute aerobic exercise in young adults

This study aimed to examine the concurrent performance of working memory and cortical activity during acute aerobic exercise in young adults. In a crossover study design, 27 young adults (mean age = 22.7 ± 3.4 years, 15 women) participated in two experimental conditions in a randomized order: (1) sitting condition (without exercise) and (2) cycling condition (moderate-intensity exercise). Working memory was measured with a modified version of the n-back task. A functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) was used to measure cortex activation. In the cycling condition, response time (RT) for the n-back task was significantly faster (p < 0.05). No differences in accuracy were observed between the sitting and cycling conditions. The fNIRS results showed that the oxygenated hemoglobin (oxy-Hb) concentrations in the bilateral frontopolar area (p < 0.05), dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (p < 0.05), and right premotor and supplementary cortex (p < 0.05) were decreased while cycling. The findings indicated that the concurrent performance of working memory was improved during acute aerobic exercise, whereas cortical activity was decreased in some brain regions.

A Review of Cognitive Changes During Acute Aerobic Exercise

A growing body of work has investigated the effects of acute, or single bouts of, aerobic exercise on cognitive function. However, review of this research has largely focused on changes following exercise, with less focus on cognitive changes during exercise. The purpose of this review is to discuss the critical characteristics of this literature to date, including: (1) what has been done, (2) what has been found, and (3) what is next. Furthermore, previous meta-analytic reviews have demonstrated there is a small positive effect on cognition when measured during exercise, with executive functions showing the largest effects. However, these reviews group executive functions together. Here we explore how inhibition, working memory and cognitive flexibility are individually impacted by factors such as exercise intensity or duration. Searches of electronic databases and reference lists from relevant studies resulted in 73 studies meeting inclusion criteria. Studies were grouped by executive and non-executive cognitive domains, intensity and duration of exercise bouts. Within the executive domain, we found that effects on working memory and cognitive flexibility remain mixed, effects on inhibition are clearer. Moderate intensity exercise improves response time, vigorous intensity impairs accuracy. Moderate to vigorous intensity improves response time across non-executive domains of attention, motor speed and information processing, with no significant effects on accuracy. Memory processes are consistently improved during exercise. Effects of exercise duration on response time and accuracy are nuanced and vary by cognitive domain. Studies typically explore durations of 45 min or less, extended exercise durations remain largely unexplored. We highlight factors to consider when assessing exercise-cognition relationships, as well as current gaps and future directions for work in this field.

Male practitioners of physical activity present lower absolute power of beta band in time perception test

Cortical changes resulting from physical activity and differences in the estimation of the time of practitioners and non-practitioners of physical activity have already been documented. However, there aren't studies that compare the cortical responses of the time estimate between these groups. Therefore, this study aimed to investigate the influence of the level of physical activity in time estimation and beta band activity in frontal regions, specifically in the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, ventrolateral prefrontal cortex, and parietal cortex during the task of estimating time in practitioners and non-practitioners of physical activity. After characterizing the sample, the signal was captured using an electroencephalogram during a task to estimate the time of four intervals of supraseconds. The results indicated that the practitioners of physical activity had lower errors in the evaluation of time for the intervals of 1 s, 7 s, and 9 s. The beta band showed less activity among practitioners of physical activity. The correlation between task performance and the absolute power of the beta band proved to be positive in the task of estimating time in the 7 s, and 9 s intervals. It was concluded that participants involved in the regular practice of physical activity showed underestimation in the temporal judgment and lower absolute power of the beta band during the time estimate.

Concurrent Performance of Executive Function during Acute Bouts of Exercise in Adults: A Systematic Review

The purpose of the study was to systematically review the evidence on the effects of an acute bout of exercise on concurrent performance of core executive function (EF) during exercise in adults. Four electronic databases (i.e., PubMed, Web of Science, PsycINFO, and SportDiscus) were searched from inception dates to 30 December 2020. The literature searches were conducted using the combinations of two groups of relevant items related to exercise and executive function. Articles were limited to human studies in adults. The search process, study selection, data extraction, and study quality assessments were carried out independently by two researchers. A total of 4899 studies were identified. Twenty-two studies met our inclusion criteria. Of the 42 reported outcomes in the 22 studies, 13 (31%) of the 42 outcomes showed that core EF performance was enhanced during exercise and 14 (33%) found that core EF performance did not differ from control conditions. Fifteen (36%) found that core EF performance was impaired. Notably, improved EF performances tend to be observed during moderate-intensity exercise, whereas impaired EF performances were more likely to be observed at vigorous-high intensity. The review suggests mixed findings regarding the effects of an acute bout of exercise on concurrent performance of core EF. Exercise intensity seems to influence the effects. The underlying neural mechanisms remain to be elucidated.

Critical Flicker Fusion Frequency: A Narrative Review

This review presents the current knowledge of the usage of critical flicker fusion frequency (CFF) in human and animal model studies. CFF has a wide application in different fields, especially as an indicator of cortical arousal and visual processing. In medicine, CFF may be helpful for diagnostic purposes, for example in epilepsy or minimal hepatic encephalopathy. Given the environmental studies and a limited number of other methods, it is applicable in diving and hyperbaric medicine. Current research also shows the relationship between CFF and other electrophysiological methods, such as electroencephalography. The human eye can detect flicker at 50-90 Hz but reports are showing the possibility to distinguish between steady and modulated light up to 500 Hz. Future research with the use of CFF is needed to better understand its utility and application.

Evaluation of the transient hypofrontality theory in the context of exercise: A systematic review with meta-analysis

Accumulating research suggests that, as a result of reduced neural activity in the prefrontal cortex (PFC), higher-order cognitive function may be compromised while engaging in high-intensity acute exercise, with this phenomenon referred to as the transient hypofrontality effect. However, findings in this field remain unclear and lack a thorough synthesis of the evidence. Therefore, the purpose of this meta-analysis was to evaluate the effects of in-task acute exercise on cognitive function, and further, to examine whether this effect is moderated by the specific type of cognition (i.e., PFC-dependent vs. non-PFC-dependent). Studies were identified by electronic databases in accordance with the PRISMA guidelines. In total, 22 studies met our inclusion criteria and intercept only meta-regression models with robust variance estimation were used to calculate the weighted average effect sizes across studies. Acute exercise at all intensities did not influence cognitive function (β = -0.16, 95% CI = [-0.58, 0.27], p = .45) when exercise occurred during the cognitive task, and no significant moderation effects emerged. However, there was evidence that cognitive task type (PFC-dependent vs. non-PFC-dependent) moderated the effect of high-intensity acute exercise on a concomitant cognitive performance (β = -0.81, 95% CI = [-1.60, -0.02], p = .04). Specifically, our findings suggest that PFC-dependent cognition is impaired while engaging in an acute bout of high-intensity exercise, providing support for the transient hypofrontality theory. We discuss these findings in the context of reticular-activating and cognitive-energetic perspectives.

The impact of physically active learning during the school day on children's physical activity levels, time on task and learning behaviours and academic outcomes

The benefits of physical activity in school settings and its impact on health and academic outcomes are of interest from public health and educational contexts. This study investigates how physically active learning (PAL): (i) contributes to children's physical activity levels, (ii) impacts on academic outcomes and (iii) influences children's focus and concentration, defined as time on task (ToT).

METHODS

Over a 2-week period, participants were exposed to PAL and non-active learning (NAL) lessons in a counterbalanced design. Physiological responses and ToT behaviour were recorded throughout PAL and NAL lessons. Academic outcomes were assessed the week before, during and the week after each mode of delivery.

RESULTS

Children were more active during PAL (196�542 steps per week) compared to NAL (152�395 steps per week, P = 0.003). The physiological demands of PAL (73% HRmax), were significantly greater (P < 0.001) than NAL (51% HRmax). Children's ToT was significantly higher (P < 0.001) with PAL (97%) than NAL (87%). There were no differences in academic outcomes when PAL and NAL were compared.

CONCLUSIONS

Modest levels of PAL increased activity levels. No evidence was found to suggest PAL had a negative effect on children's academic outcomes, and PAL could positively impact on children's concentration.

Age at illness onset and physical activity are associated with cognitive impairment in patients with current diagnosis of major depressive disorder

BACKGROUND

Cognitive impairment has been reported in patients with Major Depressive Disorder (MDD). This study aims to explore the association between lifestyle habits and health-related factors and the presence of cognitive symptoms in MDD patients.

METHODS

Demographic, clinical, health-related variables and cognitive scores measured with the Cambridge Neuropsychological Test Automated Battery (CANTAB) were compared between 74 patients with current MDD and 68 healthy controls (HC). To test the hypothesis of associated factors to cognitive symptoms, multivariate backward stepwise linear regression models were run.

RESULTS

Significant neuropsychological deficits were evident in MDD compared with HC in the global cognitive index (F=8.29; df=1, 140; p=0.005). In the regression analysis performed on MDD and HC, years of schooling (β=-0.11; p=<0.001), job status (β=-0.50; p=0.016), physical activity (β=-0.25; p=0.04) and age at illness onset (β=0.17; p=0.017) were statistically significant factors associated to cognitive impairment. The regression model ran in HC showed that only years of schooling were significant (β=-0.07; p=<0.001) in this group.

LIMITATIONS

Sample size was relatively small. Everyday cognitive skills were not evaluated.

CONCLUSIONS

MDD patients have cognitive deficits. These deficits are linked with the years of education, job status, age of onset of the disease and the performance of physical activity. These results support the importance of the implementation of interventions targeting the cognitive reserve and lifestyle habits of MDD patients, in addition to the conventional therapeutic approach focused on symptoms control.

Moderate aerobic exercise, but not anticipation of exercise, improves cognitive control

BACKGROUND

Evidence suggests a single bout of exercise can improve cognitive control. However, many studies only include assessments after exercise. It is unclear whether exercise changes as a result, or in anticipation, of exercise.

OBJECTIVE

To examine changes in cognitive control due to moderate aerobic exercise, and anticipation of such exercise.

METHODS

Thirty-one young healthy adults (mean age 22 years; 55% women) completed three conditions (randomized order): 1) exercise (participants anticipated and completed exercise); 2) anticipation (participants anticipated exercise but completed rest); and 3) rest (participants anticipated and completed rest). Cognitive control was assessed with a modified Flanker task at three timepoints: (1) early (20 min pre-intervention, pre-reveal in anticipation session); (2) pre-intervention (after reveal); and (3) post-intervention. An accuracy-weighted response time (RTLISAS) was the primary outcome, analyzed with a linear mixed effects modeling approach.

RESULTS

There was an interaction between condition and time (p = 0.003) and between session and time (p = 0.015). RTLISAS was better post-exercise than post-rest and post-deception, but was similar across conditions at other timepoints. RTLISAS improved across time in session 1 and session 2, but did not improve over time in session 3. There were also main effects of condition (p = 0.024), session (p = 0.005), time (p<0.001), and congruency (p<0.001).

CONCLUSIONS

Cognitive control improved after moderate aerobic exercise, but not in anticipation of exercise. Improvements on a Flanker task were also observed across sessions and time, indicative of a learning effect that should be considered in study design and analyses.

Exposure to first-person shooter videogames is associated with multisensory temporal precision and migraine incidence

Adaptive interactions with the environment require optimal integration and segregation of sensory information. Yet, temporal misalignments in the presentation of visual and auditory stimuli may generate illusory phenomena such as the sound-induced flash illusion, in which a single flash paired with multiple auditory stimuli induces the perception of multiple illusory flashes. This phenomenon has been shown to be robust and resistant to feedback training. According to a Bayesian account, this is due to a statistically optimal combination of the signals operated by the nervous system. From this perspective, individual susceptibility to the illusion might be moulded through prolonged experience. For example, repeated exposure to the illusion and prolonged training sessions partially impact on the reported illusion. Therefore, extensive and immersive audio-visual experience, such as first-person shooter videogames, should sharpen individual capacity to correctly integrate multisensory information over time, leading to more veridical perception. We tested this hypothesis by comparing the temporal profile of the sound-induced illusion in a group of expert first-person shooter gamers and a non-players group. In line with the hypotheses, gamers experience significantly narrower windows of illusion (~87 ms) relative to non-players (~105 ms), leading to higher veridical reports in gamers (~68%) relative to non-players (~59%). Moreover, according to recent literature, we tested whether audio-visual intensive training in gamers could be related to the incidence of migraine, and found that its severity may be directly proportioned to the time spent on videogames. Overall, these results suggest that continued training within audio-visual environments such as first-person shooter videogames improves temporal discrimination and sensory integration. This finding may pave the way for future therapeutic strategies based on self-administered multisensory training. On the other hand, the impact of intensive training on visual-related stress disorders, such as migraine incidence, should be taken into account as a risk factor during therapeutic planning.

Dual-Task Interference Between Swimming and Verbal Memory

OBJECTIVE

A dual-task study was performed to explore the performance effects for swimming, word recall, and the combination of the two tasks performed simultaneously.

BACKGROUND

Dual-task interference studies have been performed for a variety of tasks; however, there has not been much dual-task interference research where one of the tasks is a naturalistic physically strenuous task. Swimming is a unique physical task that requires spatial orientation on three dimensional axes, similar to that of flying, but has no risk of falling. Previous studies have been conducted in other activity combinations with word-free recall, such as running and climbing, but swimming has yet to be explored.

METHOD

A verbal memory recall task and swimming task were performed in isolated (single-task) and simultaneous conditions. A comparison of effects across these different activities was also explored.

RESULTS

Swimming and the word-recall task resulted in significant dual-task interference: almost as much as when word recall was paired with another verbal task, but more than running and less than climbing.

CONCLUSION

Consistent with other dual-task studies, this study observed dual-task interference between the physical swimming task and the cognitive verbal memory task.

APPLICATION

Future technologies and training for personnel who engage in water rescue or commercial diving, such as underwater welding and fiber optic cable, may be improved by these findings.

Effects of physical exercise on executive function in cognitively healthy older adults: A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials: Physical exercise for executive function

OBJECTIVE

To assess the effect of physical exercise interventions on executive function in cognitively healthy adults aged 60 years and older.

METHODS

Four electronic databases, the Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials (CENTRAL), PubMed, Web of Science and Embase, were comprehensively searched from their inception to November 25, 2019. Randomized controlled trials (RCTs) examining the effect of physical exercise on executive function in cognitively healthy older adults were included.

RESULTS

Twenty-five eligible trials with fair methodological quality were identified. Compared to a no-exercise intervention, physical exercise had positive effect on working memory (Hedge's g=0.127, p<0.01, I²= 0%), cognitive flexibility (Hedge's g=0.511; p=0.007, I²=89.08%), and inhibitory control (Hedge's g=0.136; p=0.001, I²=0%) in cognitively healthy older adults. The moderator analysis indicated that more than 13 weeks of aerobic exercise significantly improved working memory and cognitive flexibility, and intervention lasting more than 26 weeks significantly improved inhibition; mind-body exercise significantly improved working memory. No significant effect on planning or semantic verbal fluency (SVF) was found.

CONCLUSION

Regular physical exercise training, especially aerobic exercise and mind-body exercise, had positive benefit for improving working memory, cognitive flexibility and inhibitory control of executive function in cognively healthy older adults. Further well-designed RCTs should focus on the impact of specific exercise forms with a standardized exercise scheme on executive function in cognitively healthy older adults.

Effects of physical activity interventions on cognitive outcomes and academic performance in adolescents and young adults: A meta-analysis

The aim was to provide a meta-analysis of studies investigating the effects of physical activity interventions on cognitive outcomes and academic performance in adolescents or young adults. A systematic review with meta-analysis was performed using the following databases: Embase, ERIC, MEDLINE, PsycINFO and Web of Science. Studies had to meet the following criteria: controlled study design, investigating the effects of physical activity interventions on cognitive outcomes and academic performance in healthy adolescents or young adults (12-30 years). Results showed that acute interventions (n=44) significantly improved processing speed (ES=0.39), attention (ES=0.34) and, inhibition (ES=0.32). In a subsequent meta-regression, shorter duration of intervention was significantly associated with greater improvements in attention (β=-0.02) and cognitive flexibility (β=-0.04), whereas age, percentage of boys, intensity and dose were not. Chronic interventions (n=27) significantly improved processing speed (ES=0.30), attention (ES=0.50), cognitive flexibility (ES=0.19), working memory (ES=0.59) and language skills (ES=0.31). In the meta-regression, higher percentage of boys was significantly associated with greater improvements in attention (β=0.02) and working memory (β=0.01) whereas age, duration, frequency, dose and load were not. In conclusion, acute and chronic physical activity interventions might be a promising way to improve several cognitive outcomes and language skills in adolescents and young adults.

Acute Effects of Aerobic Exercise on Cognitive Attention and Memory Performance: An Investigation on Duration-Based Dose-Response Relations and the Impact of Increased Arousal Levels

Current evidence indicates that acute aerobic exercise might increase domain-specific cognitive performance. However, only a small number of studies deduced the impact on lower and higher cognitive functions systematically or analyzed dose-response relationships and the underlying mechanisms. This study aimed to expose the dose-response relationships by investigating the influence of exercise duration on subjective and objective arousal, cognitive attention and visual recognition memory tasks. Nineteen participants (eight female; 25.69 ± 3.11 years) were included in a randomized, three-armed intervention study in a cross-over design. The participants completed three different interventions consisting of either 15, 30 or 45 min of cycling at 60-70% VO₂max. Arousal and cognitive measurements were taken before and immediately after (<2 min) exercise. All three interventions led to significant but comparable effects on self-perceived arousal, heart rate (HR) and rating of perceived exertion (RPE) (p < 0.05). Analysis of variance (ANOVA) indicated significant effects of exercise duration on visual recognition memory accuracy. Reaction times for higher and lower cognitive tasks did not change after exercise. Fifteen minutes of aerobic exercise was feasible to induce beneficial changes in self-perceived arousal. Processing speed of visual recognition memory and attention remained unaltered. Exercise exceeding fifteen minutes seemed to negatively impact visual recognition memory accuracy.

Fractal properties and short-term correlations in motor control in cycling: influence of a cognitive challenge

Fluctuations in cyclic tasks periods is a known characteristic of human motor control. Specifically, long-range fractal fluctuations have been evidenced in the temporal structure of these variations in human locomotion and thought to be the outcome of a multicomponent physiologic system in which control is distributed across intricate cortical, spinal and neuromuscular regulation loops. Combined with long-range correlation analyses, short-range autocorrelations have proven their use to describe control distribution across central and motor components. We used relevant tools to characterize long- and short-range correlations in revolution time series during cycling on an ergometer in 19 healthy young adults. We evaluated the impact of introducing a cognitive task (PASAT) to assess the role of central structures in control organization. Autocorrelation function and detrending fluctuation analysis (DFA) demonstrated the presence of fractal scaling. PSD in the short range revealed a singular behavior which cannot be explained by the usual models of even-based and emergent timing. The main outcomes are that (1) timing in cycling is a fractal process, (2) this long-range fractal behavior increases in persistence with dual-task condition, which has not been previously observed, (3) short-range behavior is highly persistent and unaffected by dual-task. Relying on the inertia of the oscillator may be a way to distribute more control to the periphery, thereby allocating less resources to central process and better managing additional cognitive demands. This original behavior in cycling may explain the high short-range persistence unaffected by dual-task, and the increase in long-range persistence with dual-task.

Effects of Fatigue on Balance in Individuals With Parkinson Disease: Influence of Medication and Brain-Derived Neurotrophic Factor Genotype

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE

Because falls can have deleterious consequences, it is important to understand the influence of fatigue and medications on balance in persons with Parkinson disease (PD). Thus, the purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of fatigue on balance in individuals with PD. Because brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) has been shown to be related to motor performance, we also explored its role.

METHODS

A total of 27 individuals (age = 65.4 ± 8.1 years; males = 14, females = 13) with neurologist-diagnosed PD with 13 genotyped for BDNF as Val66Val, 11 as Val66Met, 2 as Met66Met (1 refused). Participants were tested both on and off medication, 1 week apart. On both days, they completed a pre- and posttest separated by a fatiguing condition. Factorial analyses of variance were performed for the following balance domains: (1) anticipatory postural responses; (2) adaptive postural responses; (3) dynamic balance; (4) sensory orientation; and (5) gait kinematics. For BDNF, t-tests were conducted comparing genotype for the pre-post difference scores in both the on and off medication states.

RESULTS

There were no interactions between time (pre- and postintervention) and medication for any of the domains (Ps ≥ 0.187). Participants with BDNF Met alleles were not significantly different from Val66Val participants in balance (Ps ≥ 0.111) and response to a fatiguing condition (Ps ≥ 0.070).

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS

Fatigue does not appear to have a detrimental effect on balance, and there was not a differential effect of medication in individuals with PD. These results also indicate that participants with a BDNF Met allele did not have a greater decay in function after a fatiguing condition.Video Abstract available for more insights from the authors (see Video, Supplemental Digital Content 1, available at: http://links.lww.com/JNPT/A196).

Beneficial effects of acute high-intensity exercise on electrophysiological indices of attention processes in young adult men

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High-intensity exercise improved brain measures of attention processes.

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Fitness and physical activity level were not related to degree of improvement.

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We found no effects of exercise on subsequent Flanker and Reaction-time tasks.

Background

Emerging research suggests that a single bout of aerobic exercise can improve cognition, brain function and psychological health. Our aim was to examine the effects of high-intensity exercise on cognitive-performance and brain measures of attention, inhibition and performance-monitoring across a test-battery of three cognitive tasks.

Method

Using a randomised cross-over design, 29 young men completed three successive cognitive tasks (Cued Continuous Performance Task [CPT-OX]; Eriksen Flanker Task; four-choice reaction-time task [Fast Task]) with simultaneous electroencephalogram (EEG) recording before and after a 20-min high-intensity cycling exercise and resting control session. Cognitive-performance measures, EEG power and event-related potential measures, were obtained during the tasks. Random-intercept linear models were used to investigate the effects of exercise, compared to rest, on outcomes.

Results

A single bout of exercise significantly (p < 0.05) increased the amplitude of the event-related potential Go P3, but had no effect on the contingent negative variation (CNV), Cue P3 or NoGo P3, during the CPT-OX. Delta power, recorded during the CPT-OX, also significantly increased after exercise, whereas there was no effect on cognitive-performance in this task. Exercise did not influence any cognitive-performance or brain measures in the subsequent Flanker or Fast Tasks.

Conclusion

Acute high-intensity exercise improves brain-indices reflecting executive and sustained attention during task performance (Go P3 and delta activity), in the CPT-OX, but not anticipatory attention (Cue P3 and CNV) or response inhibition (NoGo P3) in young-adult men. Exercise had no effect on cognitive-performance or brain measures in the subsequent Flanker and Fast tasks, which may potentially be explained by the time delay after exercise.

Effects of aerobic exercise on sad emotion regulation in young women: an electroencephalograph study

The effects of exercise on cognitive abilities have been studied. However, evidence regarding the neural substrates of sad emotion regulation is limited. Women have higher rates for affective disorders than men, but insufficient outcomes assess how aerobic exercises modulate central frontal activation in sad emotion inhibition and resilience among healthy women. This study investigated the effects of aerobic exercise-related brain activity on sad emotion inhibition processing in young women. Sad facial Go/No-Go and neutral Go/No-Go trials were conducted among 30 healthy young women to examine the changes in the N2 component, which reflects frontal inhibition responses, between pre-exercise and post-exercise periods. The first test was performed before aerobic exercise (baseline; 1st) and the second test was performed during an absolute rest period of 90 min after exercise. The sad No-Go stimuli that evoked N200 (N2) event-related potential were recorded and analyzed. The results showed that in the sad No-Go trials, N2 activation at the central-prefrontal cortex was significantly attenuated after exercise compared to the baseline N2 activation. Exercise-modulated N2 activation was not observed in the neutral No-Go trials. The behavioral error rates of sad No-Go trials did not differ between the two experiments. A reduced engagement of central-frontal activation to sad No-Go stimuli was shown after exercise. However, behavioral performance was consistent between the two measurements. The findings scope the benefits of the aerobic exercise on the neural efficiency in responding to sad emotion-eliciting cues as well as adaptive transitions reinstatement for regulatory capabilities in healthy young women.

Efeitos cognitivos do teste de esforço progressivo em eletricistas com equipamentos de proteção individual

Resumo Objetivo: verificar o efeito do esforço físico sobre as funções cognitivas de trabalhadores eletricistas utilizando equipamento de proteção individual (EPI). Métodos: participaram 28 eletricistas que trabalhavam na construção, manutenção e operação de redes de distribuição de energia. Todos do sexo masculino, sadios e aptos para a prática de exercícios físicos. As funções cognitivas foram representadas pelo teste de reação simples (TRS) e pelo nível de vigilância mental (NVM). O TRS e o NVM foram mensurados pré e pós-teste máximo progressivo, em esteira rolante, a 27 °C de temperatura seca e umidade relativa do ar de 64%. O teste consistiu em aumentos progressivos na velocidade e na inclinação da esteira até a fadiga, com utilização de EPI. Resultados: a média (desvio padrão) do TRS não foi significativamente diferente antes, 227,8 (35,1) ms, e após o exercício, 220,6 (24,6) ms. O NVM foi significativamente maior após o exercício em todas as situações: frequência crescente - 36,5 (5,1) Hz vs 39,5 (2,7) Hz, frequência decrescente - 36,0 (5,2) vs 39,0 (3,88) Hz, e frequência geral - 36,2 (4,9) vs 39,2 (3,1) Hz. Conclusão: o exercício progressivo máximo realizado com EPI não modificou o tempo de reação simples e aumentou o nível de vigilância mental de eletricistas.

Effect of Acute Exercise Mode on Serum Brain-Derived Neurotrophic Factor (BDNF) and Task Switching Performance

Previous studies have consistently reported a positive effect of acute exercise on cognition, particularly on executive function. However, most studies have focused on aerobic and resistant forms of exercise. The purpose of this study was to compare the effect of ‘open-skill’ with ‘closed-skill’ exercise (defined in terms of the predictability of the performing environment) on brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) production and task switching performance. Twenty young adult males participated in both closed (running) and open (badminton) skill exercise sessions in a counterbalanced order on separate days. The exercise sessions consisted of 5 min of warm up exercises followed by 30 min of running or badminton. The exercise intensity was set at 60% (±5%) of the heart rate reserve level (HRR) with HR being monitored by a wireless heart rate monitor. Blood samples were taken and participation in a task-switching paradigm occurred before and after each exercise session. Results showed no differences in serum BDNF or task-switching performance at the pre-test stage, however, badminton exercise resulted in significantly higher serum BDNF levels (a proxy for levels of BDNF in the brain) and near significant smaller global switching costs relative to running. This study has provided preliminary evidence in support the relative benefits of open-skills exercises on BDNF and executive function.

Cortical neural arousal is differentially affected by type of physical exercise performed

Critical flicker frequency (CFF) threshold is a visual discrimination task designed to assess cortical neural arousal, where higher values are associated with increased information processing and improved cognitive function. Previous studies using CFF assessments before and after exercise have only used one type of exercise (e.g., short, fatiguing, steady state, time to exhaustion, etc.). Therefore, the purpose of this study was to determine the effect of exercise type and intensity on neural arousal. 22 recreational runners (10 men, 12 women; age 25 ± 6 years) volunteered to participate in the study. They completed a VO_2max test (short, fatiguing trial), and three 30-min treadmill runs (longer, steady-state trials) at rating of perceived exertion (RPE) levels of 13, 15, and 17. Before and after each exercise test, subjects were asked to complete the CFF test; M_tot and M_di were calculated, which are the average and difference of the ascending/descending frequency trials, respectively. There were no main effects found for either intensity (p = 0.641) or time (p = 0.283); there was, however, a significant interaction found (intensity*time; p = 0.001). In the VO_2max test and in the longer, steady-state runs at RPE13 and 15, there was no change in M_tot. There was a significant increase in M_tot after the run at RPE17 (p = 0.019). For M_di, the VO_2max test elicited a significant decrease (p = 0.005), but there was no change after the steady-state runs. The results suggest that short, fatiguing and longer, steady-state exercise affect cortical neural arousal differently. Increases in arousal, and perhaps the related domain of information processing, are more likely to come from steady-state exercise at a vigorous intensity.

Why Is Working Memory Performance Unstable? A Review of 21 Factors

In this paper, we systematically reviewed twenty-one factors that have been shown to either vary with or influence performance on working memory (WM) tasks. Specifically, we review previous work on the influence of intelligence, gender, age, personality, mental illnesses/medical conditions, dieting, craving, stress/anxiety, emotion/motivation, stereotype threat, temperature, mindfulness training, practice, bilingualism, musical training, altitude/hypoxia, sleep, exercise, diet, psychoactive substances, and brain stimulation on WM performance. In addition to a review of the literature, we suggest several frameworks for classifying these factors, identify shared mechanisms between several variables, and suggest areas requiring further investigation. This review critically examines the breadth of research investigating WM while synthesizing the results across related subfields in psychology.

Simultaneous Aerobic Exercise and Memory Training Program in Older Adults with Subjective Memory Impairments

BACKGROUND

Several modifiable lifestyle factors have been shown to have potential beneficial effects in slowing cognitive decline. Two such factors that may affect cognitive performance and slow the progression of memory loss into dementia in older adults are cognitive training and physical activity. There are currently no effective treatments for dementia; therefore, preventative strategies to delay or prevent the onset of dementia are of critical importance.

OBJECTIVE

The aim of this study was to determine the relative effectiveness of simultaneous performance of memory training and aerobic exercise to a sequential performance intervention on memory functioning in older adults.

METHODS

55 older adults (aged 60- 75) with subjective memory impairments (non-demented and non-MCI) completed the intervention that consisted of 90-minute small group classes held twice weekly. Participants were randomized to either 4-weeks of supervised strategy-based memory training done simultaneously while stationary cycling (SIM) or sequentially after the stationary cycling (SEQ). Standardized neurocognitive measures of memory, executive functioning, speed of processing, attention, and cognitive flexibility were assessed at baseline and post-intervention.

RESULTS

The SIM group, but not the SEQ group, had a significant improvement on composite memory following the intervention (t(51) = 2.7, p = 0.01, effect size (ES) = 0.42) and transfer to non-trained reasoning abilities (t(51) = 6.0, ES = 0.49) and complex attention (t(51) = 3.1, p = 0.003, ES = 0.70). Conversely, the SEQ group, but not the SIM, showed significant improvement in executive functioning (t(51) = 5.0, p = 0.0001, ES = 0.96).

CONCLUSION

These findings indicate that a 4-week simultaneous memory training and aerobic exercise program is sufficient to improve memory, attention, and reasoning abilities in older adults.

Acute Exercise and Neurocognitive Development in Preadolescents and Young Adults: An ERP Study

The purpose of this study was to examine the effect of a single bout of exercise on neurocognitive function in preadolescent children and young adults by determining the modulatory role of age and the neuroelectrical mechanism(s) underlying the association between acute exercise and executive function. Twenty preadolescents and 20 young adults completed the Stroop test, and neuroelectrical activity was recorded during two treatment sessions performed in a counterbalanced order. Exercise treatments involved moderate intensity aerobic exercise for 20 min as the main exercise and two 5 min periods of warm-up and cool-down. The control treatment participants read for a similar duration of time. Acute exercise improved participant reaction times on the Stroop test, regardless of Stroop congruency, and greater beneficial effects were observed in young adults compared to those in preadolescents. The P3 amplitudes increased after acute exercise in preadolescents and young adults, but acute exercise induced lower conflict sustained potential (conflict SP) amplitudes in preadolescent children. Based on these findings, age influences the beneficial effect of acute exercise on cognitive performance in general. Furthermore, the event-related brain potential differences attributed to acute exercise provide a potential clue to the mechanisms that differentiate the effects of acute exercise on individuals from preadolescence to young adulthood.

One bout of open skill exercise improves cross-modal perception and immediate memory in healthy older adults who habitually exercise

One single bout of exercise can be associated with positive effects on cognition, due to physiological changes associated with muscular activity, increased arousal, and training of cognitive skills during exercise. While the positive effects of life-long physical activity on cognitive ageing are well demonstrated, it is not well established whether one bout of exercise is sufficient to register such benefits in older adults. The aim of this study was to test the effect of one bout of exercise on two cognitive processes essential to daily life and known to decline with ageing: audio-visual perception and immediate memory. Fifty-eight older adults took part in a quasi-experimental design study and were divided into three groups based on their habitual activity (open skill exercise (mean age = 69.65, SD = 5.64), closed skill exercise, N = 18, 94% female; sedentary activity-control group, N = 21, 62% female). They were then tested before and after their activity (duration between 60 and 80 minutes). Results showed improvement in sensitivity in audio-visual perception in the open skill group and improvements in one of the measures of immediate memory in both exercise groups, after controlling for baseline differences including global cognition and health. These findings indicate that immediate benefits for cross-modal perception and memory can be obtained after open skill exercise. However, improvements after closed skill exercise may be limited to memory benefits. Perceptual benefits are likely to be associated with arousal, while memory benefits may be due to the training effects provided by task requirements during exercise. The respective role of qualitative and quantitative differences between these activities in terms of immediate cognitive benefits should be further investigated. Importantly, the present results present the first evidence for a modulation of cross-modal perception by exercise, providing a plausible avenue for rehabilitation of cross-modal perception deficits, which are emerging as a significant contributor to functional decline in ageing.

Acute Exercise Modulates Feature-selective Responses in Human Cortex

An organism's current behavioral state influences ongoing brain activity. Nonhuman mammalian and invertebrate brains exhibit large increases in the gain of feature-selective neural responses in sensory cortex during locomotion, suggesting that the visual system becomes more sensitive when actively exploring the environment. This raises the possibility that human vision is also more sensitive during active movement. To investigate this possibility, we used an inverted encoding model technique to estimate feature-selective neural response profiles from EEG data acquired from participants performing an orientation discrimination task. Participants (n = 18) fixated at the center of a flickering (15 Hz) circular grating presented at one of nine different orientations and monitored for a brief shift in orientation that occurred on every trial. Participants completed the task while seated on a stationary exercise bike at rest and during low- and high-intensity cycling. We found evidence for inverted-U effects; such that the peak of the reconstructed feature-selective tuning profiles was highest during low-intensity exercise compared with those estimated during rest and high-intensity exercise. When modeled, these effects were driven by changes in the gain of the tuning curve and in the profile bandwidth during low-intensity exercise relative to rest. Thus, despite profound differences in visual pathways across species, these data show that sensitivity in human visual cortex is also enhanced during locomotive behavior. Our results reveal the nature of exercise-induced gain on feature-selective coding in human sensory cortex and provide valuable evidence linking the neural mechanisms of behavior state across species.

Temporal Information Processing and its Relation to Executive Functions in Elderly Individuals

Normal aging triggers deterioration in cognitive functions. Evidence has shown that these age-related changes concern also executive functions (EF) as well as temporal information processing (TIP) in a millisecond range. A considerable amount of literature data has indicated that each of these two functions sets a frame for our mental activity and may be considered in terms of embodied cognition due to advanced age. The present study addresses the question whether in elderly subjects the efficiency of TIP is related to individual differences in EF. The study involved 53 normal healthy participants aged from 65 to 78. In these subjects TIP was assessed by sequencing abilities measured with temporal-order threshold (TOT). It is defined as the minimum time gap separating two auditory stimuli presented in rapid succession which is necessary for a subject to report correctly their temporal order, thus the relation ‘before-after.’ The EF were assessed with regard to the efficiency of the executive planning measured with the Tower of London-Drexel University (TOL^DX) which has become a well-known EF task. Using Spearman’s rank correlations we observed two main results. Firstly, the indices of the TOL^DX indicated a coherent construct reflecting the effectiveness of executive planning in the elderly. Initiation time seemed dissociated from these coherent indices, which suggested a specific strategy of mental planning in the elderly based on on-line planning rather than on preplanning. Secondly, TOT was significantly correlated with the indices of TOL^DX. Although some of these correlations were modified by subject’s age, the correlation between TOT and the main index of TOL^DX (‘Total Move Score’) was rather age resistant. These results suggest that normal aging may be characterized by an overlapping of deteriorated TIP and deteriorated EF.

The effect of high and low exercise intensity periods on a simple memory recognition test

PURPOSE

The purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of variable intensities on a simple memory recognition task during exercise.

METHODS

Twenty active participants took part in initial testing, a familiarization trial and then four 60 min cycling interventions in a randomized order. Interventions consisted of no exercise (control), constant exercise at 90% ventilatory threshold (constant) and 2 trials that initially mimicked the constant trial, but then included periods of high (∼90% VO 2 peak ) and low intensities (∼50% VO 2 peak ). Cardiorespiratory measures and capillary blood samples were taken throughout. A short tablet-based cognitive task was completed prior to and during (50 and 55 min into exercise) each intervention.

RESULTS

The exercise conditions facilitated response time (p = 0.009), although the extent of this effect was not as strong in the variable exercise conditions (p = 0.011-0.089). High intensity exercise periods resulted in some cognitive regression back towards control trial performance. Elevations in cardiorespiratory measures and periods of hypocapnia could not explain changes in cognitive performance.

CONCLUSION

Changes in cognitive performance with variations in exercise intensity are likely to have implications for sport and occupational settings. The timing of cognitive tests to exercise intensity changes as well as use of short cognitive assessments will be important for future work.

Influence of dual-task on postexercise facilitation: a transcranial magnetic stimulation study

In this study we investigated the effect of a dual task (DT) comprised of a nonfatiguing leg and foot extension coupled with a calculation task on postexercise facilitation (PEF) of motor evoked potentials (MEPs) tested by using transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS). Twelve right-handed healthy subjects participated in the study. They were required to perform a motor task, a cognitive task and a DT. The motor task consisted of extending the right leg and foot for 30 sec at 20% of the maximal voluntary contraction. The cognitive task consisted of a 30-sec backward calculation. In the DT condition, motor and cognitive tasks were performed concurrently. Resting motor threshold and 10 MEPs were collected before and immediately after each task. TMS was delivered to the motor hot spot of the right vastus lateralis and tibialis anterior (TA) muscles. Results showed that exercise induced a significant PEF in both VL and TA muscles while calculation was not associated with significant PEF. Furthermore, DT was associated with lack of significant PEF in both muscles (VL, 116.1%±9.6%; TA, 115.7%±9%). Our data indicates DT interference on corticospinal excitability after a nonfatiguing exercise. Our experimental paradigm may be used to address postexercise motor cortex plastic adaptations induced by motor and cognitive tasks of different complexity in sport, aging and neuropsychiatric diseases.

The effect of histamine on changes in mental energy and fatigue after a single bout of exercise

The purpose of this research was to determine if histamine, acting on brain H1 receptors, influences changes in feelings of energy and fatigue or cognitive test performance after acute exercise. Women (n=20) with low vigor and high fatigue were administered the H1 antagonist drug doxepin hydrocholoride (6 mg) in tomato juice and tomato juice alone (placebo) in a randomized, double-blinded, cross-over experiment before performing 30 min of light intensity cycling exercise and completing energy, fatigue, sleepiness, and motivation scales, and cognitive tasks. After exercise, mental fatigue increased for the doxepin condition (p=0.014) but not placebo (p=0.700), while mental energy decreased for both PLA and DOX (p<0.001) and cognitive task performance was unaffected. It is inferred that histamine binding to H1 receptors in the brain has a role in exercise-induced reductions in mental fatigue, but not increases in energy.

Multiple stages of information processing are modulated during acute bouts of exercise

Acute bouts of aerobic physical exercise can modulate subsequent cognitive task performance and oscillatory brain activity measured with electroencephalography (EEG). Here, we investigated the sequencing of these modulations of perceptual and cognitive processes using scalp recorded EEG acquired during exercise. Twelve participants viewed pseudo-random sequences of frequent non-target stimuli (cars), infrequent distractors (obliquely oriented faces) and infrequent targets that required a simple detection response (obliquely oriented faces, where the angle was different than the infrequent distractors). The sequences were presented while seated on a stationary bike under three conditions during which scalp recorded EEG was also acquired: rest, low-intensity exercise, and high-intensity exercise. Behavioral target detection was faster during high-intensity exercise compared to both rest and low-intensity exercise. An event-related potential (ERP) analysis of the EEG data revealed that the mean amplitude of the visual P1 component evoked by frequent non-targets measured at parietal-occipital electrodes was larger during low-intensity exercise compared to rest. The P1 component evoked by infrequent targets also peaked earlier during low-intensity exercise compared to rest and high-intensity exercise. The P3a ERP component evoked by infrequent distractors measured at parietal electrodes peaked significantly earlier during both low- and high-intensity exercise when compared to rest. The modulation of the visual P1 and the later P3a components is consistent with the conclusion that exercise modulates multiple stages of neural information processing, ranging from early stage sensory processing (P1) to post-perceptual target categorization (P3a).