Role of protein kinase C in the vesicular release of acetylcholine and norepinephrine from enteric neurons of the guinea pig small intestine

Involvement of protein kinase C in the adaptive changes of cholinergic neurons to sympathetic denervation in the guinea pig myenteric plexus

Supersensitivity to muscarinic, kappa- and mu-opioid agents modulating cholinergic neurons in the guinea pig colon develops after chronic sympathetic denervation. A possible role for protein kinase C (PKC) in contributing to development of these sensitivity changes was investigated. The PKC activator, phorbol-12-myristate-13-acetate (PMA), enhanced acetylcholine (ACh) overflow in preparations obtained from normal animals. The facilitatory effect of PMA was significantly reduced after prolonged exposure to the phorbol ester and by the PKC inhibitors, chelerythrine and calphostin C. Subsensitivity to the facilitatory effect of PMA developed after chronic sympathetic denervation. In this experimental condition, immunoblot analysis revealed reduced levels of PKC in myenteric plexus synaptosomes. The facilitatory effect of the muscarininc antagonist, scopolamine, on ACh overflow was significantly reduced by the phospolipase C (PLC) inhibitor, U73122, chelerythrine and calphostin C, both in normal and denervated animals. However, in both experimental groups, PLC antagonists and PKC antagonists did not affect the inhibitory effect of the muscarinic agonist, oxotremorine-M on ACh overflow. The inhibitory effects of U69593 (kappa-opioid receptor agonist) and DAMGO (mu-opioid receptor agonist) on ACh overflow significantly increased in the presence of U73122, chelerythrine and calphostin C in preparations obtained from normal animals, but not in those obtained from sympathetically denervated animals. These results indicate that activation of PKC enhances ACh release in the myenteric plexus of the guinea pig colon. At this level, chronic sympathetic denervation entails a reduced efficiency of the enzyme. In addition, PKC is involved in the inhibitory modulation of ACh release mediated by muscarinic-, kappa- and mu-opioid receptors, although with different modalities. Muscarinic receptors inhibit PKC activity, whereas kappa- and mu-opioid receptors increase PKC activity. Both the inhibitory and the facilitatory effect on PKC involve modulation of PLC activity. The possibility that the change in PKC activity represents one of the biochemical mechanisms at the basis of development of sensitivity changes to opioid and muscarinic agents after chronic sympathetic denervation is discussed.

The structural requirements for phorbol esters to enhance serotonin and acetylcholine release from rat brain cortex

The effects of various phorbol-based protein kinase C (PKC) activators on the electrical stimulation-induced (S-I) release of serotonin and acetylcholine was studied in rat brain cortical slices pre-incubated with [3H]-serotonin or [3H]-choline to investigate possible structure-activity relationships. 4beta-phorbol 12,13-dibutyrate (4betaPDB, 0.1-3.0 microM), enhanced S-I release of serotonin in a concentration-dependent manner whereas the structurally related inactive isomer 4alpha-phorbol 12, 13-dibutyrate (4alphaPDB) and phorbol 13-acetate (PA) were without effect. Another group of phorbol esters containing a common 13-ester substituent (phorbol 12,13-diacetate, PDA; phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate, PMA; phorbol 12-methylaminobenzoate 13-acetate, PMBA) also enhanced S-I serotonin release with PMA being least potent. The deoxyphorbol monoesters, 12-deoxyphorbol 13-acetate (dPA), 12-deoxyphorbol 13-angelate (dPAng), 12-deoxyphorbol 13-phenylacetate (dPPhen) and 12-deoxyphorbol 13-isobutyrate (dPiB) enhanced S-I serotonin release but 12-deoxyphorbol 13-tetradecanoate (dPT) was without effect. The 20-acetate derivatives of dPPhen and dPAng were less effective in enhancing S-I serotonin release compared to the parent compounds. With acetylcholine release all phorbol esters tested had a far lesser effect when compared to their facilitatory action on serotonin release with only 4betaPDB, PDA, dPA, dPAng and dPiB having significant effects. The effects of the phorbol esters on serotonin release were not correlated with their reported in vitro affinity and isozyme selectivity for PKC. A comparison across three transmitter systems (noradrenaline, dopamine, serotonin) suggests basic similarities in the structural requirements of phorbol esters to enhance transmitter release with short chain substituted mono- and diesters of phorbol being more potent facilitators of release than the long chain esters. Some compounds notably PDA, PMBA, dPPhen, dPPhenA had different potencies across noradrenaline, dopamine and serotonin.

Noradrenaline synthesis after sympathetic nerve activation in rat atria and its dependence on calcium but not CAM kinase II and protein kinases A or C

1. The biosynthesis of noradrenaline following sympathetic nerve activation was investigated in rat atria. In particular the time course of noradrenaline synthesis changes, the relationship of changes in synthesis to transmitter release and the possible roles of second messengers and protein kinases were examined. 2. Rat atria incubated with the precursor [3H]-tyrosine synthesized [3H]-noradrenaline. Synthesis was enhanced following pulsatile electrical field stimulation (3 Hz for 5 min) with the bulk of the increase occurring in the first 45 min after the commencement of electrical stimulation. In separate experiments rat atria were pre-incubated with [3H]-noradrenaline and the radioactive outflow in response to electrical field stimulation (3 Hz for 5 min) was taken as an index of noradrenaline release. 3. Stimulation-induced (S-I) noradrenaline synthesis was significantly correlated to S-I noradrenaline release for a variety of procedures which modulate noradrenaline release by mechanisms altering Ca2+ entry into the neurone (r2 = 0.99): those which decreased release: tetrodotoxin (0.3 microM), Ca(2+)-free medium, lowering the frequency of nerve activation to 1 Hz, and those which increased release, tetraethylammonium (0.3 mM), phentolamine (1 microM) and the combination of phentolamine (1 microM) and adenosine (10 microM). On the strength of this relationship we suggest that Ca2+ entry is a determining factor in S-I synthesis changes rather than the amount of noradrenaline released. Indeed the reduction in noradrenaline release with the calmodulin-dependent protein (CAM) kinase II inhibitor KN-62 (10 microM) which acts subsequent to Ca2+ entry, did not affect S-I synthesis. 4. The cell permeable cyclic AMP analogue, 8-bromoadenosine 3',5'-monophosphate (BrcAMP, 90 and 270 microM), dose-dependently increased basal [3H]-noradrenaline synthesis in unstimulated rat atria. This effect was antagonized by the selective protein kinase A (PKA) antagonist, Rp-8-chloroadenosine 3',5'-cyclic monophosphorothioate (RClcAMPS, 300 microM), suggesting that PKA activation enhances basal noradrenaline biosynthesis in sympathetic nerve terminals. 5. The protein kinase inhibitors, KN-62 (CAM kinase II, 10 microM), RClcAMPS (PKA, 300 microM), polymyxin B (protein kinase C (PKC), 21 microM) and staurosporine (PKC, PKA and CAM kinase II, (0.1 microM) did not affect S-I synthesis, although KN-62, polymyxin B and staurosporine decreased S-I release. We conclude that S-I synthesis is triggered by Ca2+ entering the neurone but that the signalling pathway does not involve classical protein kinases and appears distinct from the steps involved in transmitter release.

Protein kinase C (alpha, beta, gamma) in Pacinian corpuscle

Immunocytochemical demonstration of protein kinase C (PKC) subspecies (alpha, beta, gamma) was carried out in Pacinian corpuscles of rat hind feet using monoclonal or polyclonal antibodies against each of these subspecies. The inner core cells and lamellae and the Schwann cell cytoplasm of the nerve fiber innervating the corpuscle were strongly positive for PKC alpha-immunoreactivity (IR). In contrast, the axon terminal and the outer core did not display any positive alpha-IR. Very weak PKC beta-IR was detected in the ultraterminal region of the axon terminal, while the trunk region showed no immunoreactivity. Very faint PKC beta-IR was found also in the lamellar cells located at the periphery of the inner core and the endoneurial fibroblasts in the intermediate layer. PKC gamma-IR was not detected in any part of the corpuscle. The strong PKC alpha-IR in the inner core and the presence or absence of PKC alpha-, beta-, and gamma-IR in the axon terminal are discussed from the point of view of the functional aspects of each part.

Activation of protein kinase C suppresses the gamma-aminobutyric acidB receptor-mediated inhibition of the vesicular release of noradrenaline and acetylcholine

Modulation of the gamma-aminobutyric acidB (GABAB) receptor-mediated response by protein kinase C (PKC) was examined with regard to inhibition by stimulation of the GABAB receptor of stimulation-evoked release of noradrenaline (NA) from slices of cerebellar cortex and of acetylcholine (ACh) from strips of ileum. 12-O-Tetradecanoylphorbol 13-acetate (TPA) potentiated the high K(+)-evoked Ca2+-dependent release of NA and ACh, but not the ouabain-evoked release, even in the presence of external Ca2+. The potentiating effect was antagonized by sphingosine, thereby suggesting that PKC participates in the exocytotic-vesicular release of neurotransmitters, but does not do so in case of a nonvesicular release. GABA inhibited the high K(+)-evoked release of NA and ACh, but not the ouabain-evoked Ca(2+)-independent release. The effect of GABA was mimicked by baclofen and was antagonized by phaclofen, thereby suggesting that stimulation of the GABAB receptor inhibits the vesicular but not the nonvesicular release of neurotransmitters. TPA suppressed the GABAB receptor-mediated inhibition of high K(+)-evoked release of NA and ACh. The effect of TPA was antagonized by sphingosine. These results indicate that stimulation of the GABAB receptor inhibits the stimulation-evoked Ca(2+)-dependent release of neurotransmitters and that activation of PKC suppresses the GABAB receptor-mediated response.

Protein kinase c-beta-like immunoreactivity in the developing and adult rat adrenal gland

Protein kinase c-beta-like immunoreactivity was studied in the adrenal gland of adult rats and at different pre- and postnatal stages of development (E17-P21) with an antibody specific to both the beta 1 and beta 2 subtypes of the kinase. In the adult rat adrenal gland, the immunoreactivity was seen in numerous nerve fibres in the adrenal medulla both in bundles and individually forming occasionally dense networks around chromaffin cell groups. Several protein kinase c-beta-immunoreactive fibres were also observed transversing the adrenal cortex towards the medulla. No remaining immunoreactive fibres two weeks after transection of the splanchnic nerve could be seen; nor was any immunoreactivity observed in the chromaffin cells of the adrenal medulla or in the cortical cells, but some faintly immunoreactive ganglion cells were detected in the adrenal medulla. The amount and distribution of protein kinase c-beta-like immunoreactivity in the fetal and developing adrenals was very similar to that seen in the adrenal glands of adult rats. On the basis of its localization, the beta-subtype of protein kinase c does not appear to be directly involved in the release of catecholamines from the adrenal medulla, but it might have a role in the regulation of neurotransmitter release from preganglionic cholinergic neurons.

The localization of the beta-subtype of protein kinase C (PKC-beta) in rat sympathetic neurons

The localization of PKC-beta was studied in rat sympathetic neurons using a polyclonal antibody specific for the beta 1- and beta 2-subspecies. The tissues studied included the superior cervical (SCG) and hypogastric (HGG) ganglia and the target tissues of the SCG and HGG neurons: the submandibular gland, iris, prostate and vas deferens. PKC-beta-LI was found in nerve fibers in both ganglia. A proportion of the fibers in the SCG disappeared after decentralization, suggesting that the fibers were of both pre- and postganglionic origin. The somata of the HGG and SCG neurons expressed varying amounts of PKC-beta-LI, the majority of SCG neurons being labelled only after colchicine treatment. In all target tissues there were PKC-beta-immunoreactive nerve fibers in bundles, but the most peripheral branches of the fibers were negatively labelled. The results show that PKC-beta-LI is widely present in sympathetic postganglionic neurons with mainly quantitative differences. The lack of PKC-beta in the most peripheral branches of nerve fibers might be a general feature of sympathetic postganglionic neurons, suggesting that the participation of PKC-beta in neurotransmitter release and in other functions in nerve terminals in sympathetic adrenergic neurons is unlikely.

Protein phosphorylation in guinea-pig myenteric ganglia and brain: presence of calmodulin kinase II. protein kinase C and cyclic AMP kinase and characterization of major phosphoproteins

The aim of this study was to demonstrate the presence of calmodulin-stimulated protein kinase II, protein kinase C, and cyclic AMP-stimulated protein kinase in isolated myenteric ganglia and to characterize the major ganglia phosphoproteins using biochemical and immunochemical techniques. Ganglia from the small intestine of guinea-pigs were isolated, disrupted by sonication in Triton X-100, and phosphorylated. The phosphoprotein patterns obtained were compared with those of synaptosomes from guinea-pig and rat cerebral cortex. Myenteric ganglia were as rich in protein kinase C and cyclic AMP-stimulated protein kinase as brain tissue, but the level of calmodulin-stimulated protein kinase II was relatively lower. The alpha subunit of calmodulin-stimulated protein kinase II was detected by immunoblotting and the beta subunit by autophosphorylation. The ratio of beta to alpha subunit was considerably higher in ganglia than in brain and ganglia beta subunit had a lower apparent molecular weight than the brain enzyme. A number of neuronal phosphoproteins were found in ganglia including the 87,000 mol. wt phosphoprotein, synapsins 1a and 1b, and proteins IIIa and IIIb. A phosphoprotein of 48,000 mol. wt had many of the characteristics of the B-50 protein but was not the same. In addition, a number of other phosphoproteins not previously identified in neurons were found in ganglia including those with apparent molecular weights of 60,000 and 58,000 that were the major calmodulin kinase substrates. The guinea-pig enteric nervous system has been extensively studied but, unlike other parts of the mammalian nervous system, little is known about the intracellular mechanisms underlying its functions. A technique for isolating myenteric ganglia is now available and we have used this preparation to characterize the major protein kinase and phosphoproteins present in this tissue. The results obtained will allow the phosphorylation of the various proteins to be investigated after physiological or pharmacological manipulation of myenteric ganglia in situ and in vivo.

Involvement of protein kinase C in the Ca2+-dependent vesicular release of GABA from central and enteric neurons of the guinea pig

The involvement of protein kinase C (PKC) in the release of endogenous gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) was studied using slices of deep cerebellar nucleus and strips of small intestine from the guinea pig. 12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol 13-acetate (TPA), but not 4 alpha-phorbol-12,13-didecanoate (4 alpha-PDD), potentiated the high K+-evoked release of GABA from both preparations in the presence of tetrodotoxin. Ouabain evoked the release of GABA from both preparations, and this release was not altered by TPA. Therefore, the activation of protein kinase C potentiates the Ca2+-dependent vesicular release of GABA from nerve terminals of the central and enteric GABAergic neurons of the guinea pig.